Measuring wall thickness loss for a structure

ABSTRACT

Systems, methods and computer storage mediums accurately measure wall thickness in a region of interest included in complex curved structures. Embodiments of the present disclosure relate to generating a wall thickness loss distribution map of a region of interest that provides an accurate representation of wall thickness for the region of interest included in a complex curved structure. The wall thickness loss distribution map is generated from a two-dimensional model of the wall thickness loss distribution of the region of interest. The two-dimensional model is converted from a three-dimensional representation of the wall thickness loss distribution of the region of interest. The three-dimensional representation of the wall thickness is generated by ultrasonic waves generated by a transducer system that propagated through the region of interest.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a U.S. Nonprovisional application which claims thebenefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/758,433 filed on Jan. 30,2013, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

Accurate thickness mapping of large structures is critical to assess theresidual life of structures subject to erosion or corrosion damage.Conventional gauging devices require a handheld sensor to scan across aregion of interest of a structure. Conventional gauging devices arelimited to assess regions of interest that are easily accessible to bescanned. Conventional gauging devices are not suitable for regions ofinterest that are difficult to access for scanning or require continuousmonitoring.

Another conventional thickness mapping approach includes guided wavetomography (GWT). Conventional GWT transmits waves through the region ofinterest. The signals resulting from the propagated waves are processedto generate a representation of the wall thickness distribution for theregion of interest. Conventional GWT implements a conventional straightray model to generate the representation based on the assumption thatthe waves travel on straight paths. The conventional straight ray modelfails to accurately describe ultrasonic waves that propagate throughstructures with non-uniform thickness, such as corroded pipes, thusresulting in poor estimations of wall thickness loss for the structures.

BRIEF SUMMARY

Embodiments of the present disclosure relate to generating a wallthickness distribution map that accurately depicts the wall thicknessfor structures with non-uniform thickness. In an example embodiment,wall thickness of a region of interest included in a structure ismeasured. The structure may include a complex curved structure, such apipe. The region of interest may include a portion of the pipe thatincludes non-uniform wall thickness distribution. A control system sendsinitial electronic signals to a transducer system that is located on thestructure of interest. The transducer system converts the initialelectronic signals into an ultrasonic wave and propagates the ultrasonicwave through the region of interest. The transducer system converts thepropagated ultrasonic waves into propagated electronic signals. Thepropagated electronic signals encode a three-dimensional representationof the wall thickness loss distribution for the region of interest.

The transducer system provides the propagated electronic signals to thecontrol system. The control system digitizes the propagated electronicsignals and provides the digitized propagated electronic signals to apre-processing system. A pre-processing system converts thethree-dimensional representation encoded by the digitized propagatedelectrical signals to a two-dimensional model for analysis of the wallthickness loss. An inversion system generates a wall thickness lossdistribution map from the two-dimensional model. The wall thickness lossdistribution map provides an accurate representation of the wallthickness loss for the complex thickness distributions included in theregion of interest. An operator terminal provides an interface for anoperator to analyze the wall thickness loss distribution map.

In an embodiment, a system measures wall thickness in a region ofinterest included in a structure. A transducer system is configured totransmit ultrasonic waves through the region of interest and convert theultrasonic waves to propagated electrical signals that encode athree-dimensional representation of the wall thickness loss distributionof the region of interest. A pre-processing system is configured toconvert the three-dimensional representation encoded by the digitizedpropagated electrical signals to a two-dimensional model for analysis ofthe wall thickness loss. An inversion system is configured to generate awall thickness loss distribution map from the two-dimensional model. Thewall thickness loss distribution model map provides wall thickness lossfor the region of interest.

In an embodiment, a method measures wall thickness in a region ofinterest included in a structure. Ultrasonic waves may be transmittedthrough the region of interest and converted to propagated electricalsignals that encode a three-dimensional representation of the wallthickness loss distribution of the region of interest. Thethree-dimensional representation encoded by the digitized propagatedelectrical signals may be converted by a pre-processing system to atwo-dimensional model for analysis of the wall thickness loss. A wallthickness loss distribution map may be generated from thetwo-dimensional model. The wall thickness loss distribution map provideswall thickness loss for the region of interest.

Further embodiments, features, and advantages, as well as the structureand operation of the various embodiments, are described in detail belowwith reference to the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS/FIGURES

Embodiments are described with reference to the accompanying drawings.In the drawings, like reference numbers may indicate identical orfunctionally similar elements.

FIG. 1 illustrates a thickness mapping configuration, according to anembodiment;

FIG. 2 illustrates a detailed view of a thickness mapping system foraccurate thickness mapping of large engineering structures, according toan embodiment;

FIG. 3 depicts an example wall of a pipe that depicts the generation ofa guided ultrasonic wave by a transmit ultrasonic transducer, accordingto an embodiment;

FIG. 4 depicts a conventional transmit transducer configuration;

FIG. 5A depicts a spacer magnetic flux concentrator that may beimplemented with transmit ultrasonic transducers to accentuate thecurvature and concentrate the magnetic flux generated by transmitultrasonic transducers so that exclusive excitation of the preferredmode occurs, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 5B depicts a spacer cone flux concentrator that may be implementedwith transmit ultrasonic transducers to accentuate the curvature andconcentrate the magnetic flux generated by transmit ultrasonictransducers so that exclusive excitation of the preferred mode occurs,according to an embodiment;

FIG. 6A depicts example conventional guided ultrasonic wave generatedfrom a conventional transmit transducer configuration;

FIG. 6B depicts example guided ultrasonic wave generated from a spacermagnetic flux concentrator and/or a spacer cone flux concentrator,according to an embodiment;

FIG. 7A depicts a tubular thickness mapping configuration where a directguided ultrasonic wave propagates directly through a pipe from a firsttransmit ultrasonic transducer to a first receive ultrasonic transducerin three-dimensions without wrapping around a pipe, according to anembodiment;

FIG. 7B depicts an unwrapped thickness mapping configuration, accordingto an embodiment;

FIG. 8 depicts a tubular thickness mapping configuration where thetwo-dimensional data mapped from the three-dimensional data generated bya direct guided ultrasonic wave that propagates directly from a firsttransmit ultrasonic transducer to a first receive ultrasonic transducer,according to an embodiment;

FIG. 9 depicts an example 2-D equivalent model as represented as a wallthickness map for a pipe, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 10 depicts an example dispersion characteristic relationship ofLamb waves, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 11 illustrates an example wall thickness map, according to anembodiment;

FIG. 12 is a flowchart showing an example method for generating the 2-Dequivalent model, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 13 depicts a mapping configuration that illustrates a 3-D surfacemapped to a 2-D thickness map, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 14 depicts a cylinder configuration, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 15 depicts a mapping configuration, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 16 depicts A₀/S₀ ratio, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 17 depicts a first control system configuration, according to anembodiment;

FIG. 18 depicts a second control system configuration, according to anembodiment;

FIG. 19 depicts a pre-processing configuration, according to anembodiment;

FIG. 20A depicts a windowing configuration, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 20B depicts a Hann windowing configuration that may be centeredaround the dashed line to gate the signal and return a single wavepacket, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 21 depicts a signal configuration, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 22 depicts zero-crossing configuration, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 23 depicts an arrival time configuration, according to anembodiment;

FIG. 24 depicts an array geometrical registration configuration,according to an embodiment;

FIG. 25 depicts a nonlinear inversion system that inverts data,according to an embodiment;

FIG. 26 depicts an inverse function configuration, according to anembodiment; and

FIG. 27 depicts a second nonlinear inversion system, according to anembodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In the Detailed Description herein, references to “one embodiment”, “anembodiment”, an “example embodiment”, etc., indicate that the embodimentdescribed may include a particular feature, structure, orcharacteristic, but every embodiment may not necessarily include theparticular feature, structure, or characteristic. Moreover, such phrasesare not necessarily referring to the same embodiment. Further, when aparticular feature, structure, or characteristic may be described inconnection with an embodiment, it may be submitted that it may be withinthe knowledge of one skilled in the art to affect such feature,structure, or characteristic in connection with other embodimentswhether or not explicitly described.

The following detailed description refers to the accompanying drawingsthat illustrate exemplary embodiments. Other embodiments are possible,and modifications can be made to the embodiments within the spirit andscope of this description. Those skilled in the art with access to theteachings provided herein will recognize additional modifications,applications, and embodiments within the scope thereof and additionalfields in which embodiments would be of significant utility. Therefore,the detailed description is not meant to limit the embodiments describedbelow.

Overview

FIG. 1 depicts a thickness mapping configuration 100. Thickness mappingconfiguration includes a complex structure 101, a plurality of transmitultrasonic transducers 102, a transmit aperture 103, a plurality ofguided ultrasonic waves 104, a region of interest 105, a plurality ofreceive ultrasonic transducers 106, and a receive aperture 107.

Complex structure 101 may depict a three-dimensional structure that ishollow so that an open space exists between the walls of complexstructure 101. For example, complex structure may include a pipe. Thepipe is a three-dimensional cylindrical structure that is hollow with anopen space between the walls of the pipe. As will be discussed in detailbelow, complex structure 101 may include any type of hollowthree-dimensional structure where an ultrasonic wave may be adequatelyguided from plurality of transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 toplurality of receive ultrasonic transducers 106 that will be apparent tothose skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spiritand scope of the present disclosure. However, for ease of discussion,complex structure 101 will be referenced to as pipe 101.

Pipe 101 may be designed to guide the flow of gas and/or liquids throughpipe 101 where the gas and/or liquids enter a first end of pipe 101 andare guided through pipe 101 to a second end of pipe 101 where the gasand/or liquids depart pipe 101. The gas and/or liquids guided by pipe101 may have a structural impact on the walls of pipe 101 wherecorrosion and/or erosion damage of pipe 101 may occur. Corrosion is thegradual destruction of the walls of pipe 101 due to a chemical reactionthat results from the gas and/or liquid that is guided by pipe 101and/or from environmental conditions that pipe 101 may be exposed.Erosion is the decrease in wall thickness for pipe 101 due to the flowof the gas, liquids, and/or solid particles guided by pipe 101. Forexample, pipe 101 may guide oil and be located in an oil refinery. Theoil guided by pipe 101 may over time result in corrosion and/or erosionof pipe 101 while the high temperatures of the oil refinery where pipe101 is located may also have a significant impact on the corrosionand/or erosion of pipe 101. As pipe 101 continuously guides the gasand/or liquids and/or is exposed to severe environmental conditions,eventually the weakened portions of pipe 101 may fail resulting indamage to pipe 101 and/or the environment surrounding pipe 101.

Non-uniformity in the wall thickness of pipe 101 may be an indicator ofwall weakness. Each wall of pipe 101 may have a thickness that wheninitially manufactured is substantially uniform throughout each wall.The uniform thickness of each wall indicates that the thickness of eachwall is substantially the same for substantially every portion of eachwall. However, exposure of pipe 101 to corrosion/erosion elements overtime with usage of pipe 101 may have an impact on the uniformity of wallthickness. Portions of walls that weaken may have their thicknessreduced while other portions that are not weakened may maintainsubstantially the same thickness as when the pipe was initiallymanufactured. The difference in thickness between different portions ofthe walls results in non-uniformity in the wall thickness. Examiningpipe 101 for non-uniformity in the wall thickness may provide anindicator of which portions of the walls are weakening so thatpre-emptive maintenance may be performed on the weakened portions beforedamage to pipe 101 occurs.

In order to adequately measure the non-uniformity in the wall thicknessof pipe 101, substantially every portion of pipe 101 may be continuouslymonitored. Selectively monitoring portions of pipe 101 while notmonitoring other portions may adequately monitor the non-uniformity inthe wall thickness for those monitored portions. However, thenon-monitored portions of pipe 101 may have significant non-uniformityin wall thickness that is overlooked and eventually results in damage topipe 101 and/or the environment surrounding pipe 101. Also, monitoringpipe 101 for a period of time and terminating the monitoring may alsoresult in non-uniformity in the wall thickness that develops when pipe101 is not being monitored which is overlooked and eventually results indamage to pipe 101 and/or the environment surrounding pipe 101.

Thickness mapping configuration 100 may continuously monitor thenon-uniformity in wall thickness for the portion of pipe 101 that islocated between transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and receiveultrasonic transducers 106. Transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 andreceive ultrasonic transducers 106 may be positioned around thecircumference of pipe 101 so that each transducer is substantiallyequally spaced from each other around the circumference of pipe 101.Transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and receive ultrasonic transducers106 may also be positioned on any portion of pipe 101 so that theportion of pipe 101 located between each may be continuously monitored.For example, if the entire pipe 101 is to be monitored, transmitultrasonic transducers 102 may be positioned on the first end of pipe101 and receive ultrasonic transducers 106 may be positioned on thesecond end of pipe 101 so that the entire pipe 101 is monitored fornon-uniform wall thickness.

Transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 may include N quantity of transmitultrasonic transducers where N is an integer greater than or equal toone. Receive ultrasonic transducers 106 may include M quantity ofreceive ultrasonic transducers where M is an integer greater than orequal to one. In an embodiment, the N quantity of transmit ultrasonictransducers 102 may differ from the M quantity of receive ultrasonictransducers. In another embodiment, N quantity of transmit transducersmay be equal to the M quantity of receive ultrasonic transducers.

Each transmit ultrasonic transducer 102 may excite a correspondingguided ultrasonic wave 104. Guided ultrasonic waves 104 may beultrasonic waves that are guided by the walls of pipe 101 so that guidedultrasonic waves 104 propagate throughout the walls of pipe 101 fromtransmit ultrasonic transducers 102 to receive ultrasonic transducers106. The L quantity of guided ultrasonic waves 104 may be an integergreater than or equal to one and corresponds to the quantity of guidedultrasonic waves 104 excited by transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 andreceive ultrasonic transducers 106. Although guided ultrasonic waves 104propagate throughout the walls of pipe 101, for ease of discussion itmay be referred that guided ultrasonic waves 104 propagate through pipe101.

Each guided ultrasonic wave 104 may propagate through region of interest105 which is located between transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 andreceive ultrasonic transducers 106. Region of interest 105 may be aportion of pipe 101 that is under continuous analysis to determinewhether non-uniformity in the wall thickness for region of interest 105exists. FIG. 1 depicts region of interest 105 as a portion of the totalarea of pipe 101 located between transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 andreceive ultrasonic transducers 106 but region of interest 105 may extendto include the total area between transmit ultrasonic transducers 102and receive ultrasonic transducers 106.

Each guided ultrasonic wave 104 excited by each corresponding transmitultrasonic transducer 102 may propagate from each corresponding transmitultrasonic transducer 102 through region of interest 105 and then may bereceived by each corresponding receive ultrasonic transducer 106. Eachguided ultrasonic wave 104 may propagate through pipe 101 at a constantphase velocity when each portion of pipe 101 is at a substantiallyuniform wall thickness so that each guided ultrasonic wave 104 is notdelayed as it propagates through pipe 101 from transmit ultrasonictransducers 102 to receive ultrasonic transducers 106. However, aportion of pipe that has non-uniform wall thickness, such as region ofinterest 105, may delay the propagation of each guided ultrasonic wave104 as they propagate through region of interest 105. As a result, thereis a delay in each ultrasonic wave 104 in reaching receive ultrasonictransducers 106 from transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 due to thenon-uniform wall thickness of region of interest 105.

For example, region of interest 105 includes a portion of pipe 101 wherenon-uniform wall thickness exists. Each guided ultrasonic wave 104 thatis excited by each transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 may beginpropagating through the portions of pipe 101 with uniform wall thicknessat a constant phase velocity. However, each guided ultrasonic wave 104may slow down as each propagates through region of interest 105 due tothe non-uniform wall thickness of region of interest 105. Each guidedultrasonic wave 104 may then speed up after exiting region of interest105 due to the uniform wall thickness of the portions of pipe 101positioned between region of interest 105 and receive ultrasonictransducers 106.

Each transmit ultrasonic transducer 102 may excite each guidedultrasonic wave 104 at a fixed frequency each time each guidedultrasonic wave 104 is generated. Each guided ultrasonic wave 104 maythen propagate through pipe 101 at the fixed frequency from eachtransmit ultrasonic transducer 102 to each corresponding receiveultrasonic transducer 106. As noted above, each guided ultrasonic wave104 may be delayed in reaching each corresponding receive ultrasonictransducer 106 when propagating through region of interest 105 due tothe non-uniform wall thickness of region of interest 105. The delay in aunit of time may be measured at each corresponding receive ultrasonictransducer 106 for each guided ultrasonic wave 104.

As noted above, the phase velocity of each guided ultrasonic wave 104may slow down when each guided ultrasonic wave 104 propagates throughregion of interest 105 and then speed back up to their initial constantphase velocity before entering region of interest 105. With the timedelay measured for each guided ultrasonic wave 104 at receive ultrasonictransducers 106, point by point phase velocities may be determined foreach guided ultrasonic wave 104 for each point along the travel path ofguided ultrasonic wave 104 through pipe 101. As a result, the decreasein phase velocity for each guided ultrasonic wave 104 during propagationthrough region of interest 105 may be determined relative to theincrease in phase velocity for each when propagating through otherportions of pipe 101 with uniform wall thickness.

With the propagation frequency for each guided ultrasonic wave 104 fixedand the point by point phase velocity for each guided ultrasonic wave104 determined, the thickness of the walls of pipe 101 may bedetermined. The thickness data may then be digitized into pixels anddisplayed to an operator with a resolution via an operator terminal sothat the operator may visually identify the portions of pipe 101 thathave non-uniform wall thickness. As a result, the operator may easilyidentify that region of interest 105 has non-uniform wall thicknessbased on the discoloration of the pixels associated with region ofinterest 105 as compared to other portions of pipe 101 that have uniformwall thickness. The operator may evaluate from the map the maximum wallthickness loss that has occurred given as a percentage of the intactwall thickness or as an absolute value. The operator may then takepre-emptive measures to treat region of interest 105 to prevent regionof interest 105 from failing and causing damage to pipe 101 and/or thesurrounding environment of pipe 101.

FIG. 2 depicts a detailed view of a thickness mapping system 200 foraccurate thickness mapping of large engineering structures. Thicknessmapping system 200 includes a transducer system 201, a control system202, a pre-processing system 203, an inversion system 204, and anoperator terminal 205. Signal and data transfer systems may be used totransport information interchangeably between transducer system 201,control system 202, pre-processing system 203, inversion system 204, andoperator terminal 205.

Transducer system 201 is depicted in FIG. 1. Transducer system 201includes transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and receive ultrasonictransducers 106. As noted above, transmit ultrasonic transducers 102excite guided ultrasonic waves 104 that propagate through pipe 101 andare received by receive ultrasonic transducers 106. Any delay measuredat receive ultrasonic transducers 106 for guided ultrasonic waves 104may then be used to determine non-uniform wall thickness in pipe 101.

Transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 excite guided ultrasonic waves 104by generating magnetic flux and induces current into pipe 101 thatresults in forces being generated within pipe 101. The forces thenexcite guided ultrasonic waves 104 that then propagate through pipe 101.Transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and receive ultrasonic transducers106 may be electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs) and/or any othertype of transducer that excites guided ultrasonic waves 104 bygenerating forces that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevantart(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the presentdisclosure.

Transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 generate guided ultrasonic waves 104that spread out within the walls of pipe 101 similar to the visiblewater waves generated in a pond when a pebble engages the water. FIG. 3depicts an example wall 300 of pipe 101 that depicts the generation ofguided ultrasonic wave 104 by transmit ultrasonic transducer 102.Transmit ultrasonic transducer 102 generates magnetic flux and inducescurrent into wall 300 that results in electromagnetic forces within wall300 that generate guided ultrasonic wave 104. With conventionaltransducer technology, guided ultrasonic wave 104 may include multiplemodes. In this example, the ultrasonic wave field 104 consists of twoLamb waves that are the cylindrically diverging modes A₀ 301 and S₀ 302.

Although FIG. 3 depicts an ultrasonic wave field 104 consisting of twoLamb modes. However, many more Lamb modes can propagate as the frequencyof the signal increases. The modes are grouped into two familiesdepending on their characteristic displacement distribution through thethickness. The antisymmetric family contains guided modes A₀, A₁, A₂,and so on while the symmetric family contains modes S₀, S₁, S₂, and soon. If more than one mode propagate at the same time, the estimation oftime delays becomes difficult.

In order for any delay in propagation for guided ultrasonic waves 104 tobe adequately measured at receive ultrasonic transducers 106, a singlemode is to be excited so that the single mode propagates through pipe101 to receive ultrasonic transducers 106. Exciting guided ultrasonicwaves 104 so that multiple modes are excited and propagate through pipe101 to receive ultrasonic transducers 106 significantly increases thedifficulty in measuring any time delay in guided ultrasonic waves 104 atreceive ultrasonic transducers 106. Without being able to measure anytimed delay, the point by point phase velocities for guided ultrasonicwaves 104 cannot be determined resulting in the wall thickness for pipe101 also not being determined. As a result, a single mode associatedwith guided ultrasonic waves 104 is to be excited so that the wallthickness for pipe 101 can eventually be determined.

A preferred mode for guided ultrasonic wave 104 may be excited bytransmit ultrasonic transducer 102 by guiding the magnetic fluxgenerated by transmit ultrasonic transducer 102 so that the magneticflux is bent at an angle relative to pipe 101 so that a preferred modefor guided ultrasonic wave 104 may be excited while any other unwantedmodes are not excited. The exclusive excitation of the preferred modewhile not exciting any other unwanted modes enables the preferred modeof guided ultrasonic wave 104 to propagate through pipe 101 and reachreceive ultrasonic transducers 106 while minimizing the propagation ofany other unwanted mode so any delay in guided ultrasonic wave 104 maybe adequately measured.

FIG. 4 depicts a conventional transmit transducer configuration 400.Conventional transmit transducer configuration 400 includes aconventional cylindrical magnet 401. Conventional cylindrical magnet 401generates substantially normal magnetic flux density B₀ 402 wheremagnetic flux density B₀ 402 is substantially normal to pipe 101.Magnetic flux density B₀ 402 being substantially normal to pipe 101 isnot bent at an angle to exclusively excite a preferred mode withoutexciting any unwanted modes. Rather, magnetic flux density B₀ 402 beingsubstantially normal to pipe 101 excites multiple modes included inguided ultrasonic wave 104 preventing the measurement of any time delaythat may result from guided ultrasonic wave 104 propagating throughnon-uniform wall thickness in pipe 101.

FIGS. 5A and 5B depict two examples of magnetic flux concentrators thatmay be implemented with transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 so that themagnetic flux generated by transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 may beguided so that exclusive excitation of the preferred mode occurs withoutexciting any other unwanted modes. FIG. 5A depicts a spacer magneticflux concentrator 500 that may be implemented with transmit ultrasonictransducers 102 to accentuate the curvature and concentrate the magneticflux generated by transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 so that exclusiveexcitation of the preferred mode occurs. Spacer magnetic fluxconcentrator 500 includes a cylindrical magnet 510 and a small-diameterspacer magnet 520 coupled to cylindrical magnet 510. Cylindrical magnet510 may generate the magnetic flux. Small-diameter spacer magnet 520that has a smaller diameter than cylindrical magnet 510 may then becoupled to pipe 101 and acts as a magnetic flux guide to guide themagnetic flux generated by cylindrical magnet 510 without anysignificant loss in magnetic flux density. The distance betweencylindrical magnet 510 and pipe 101 which is the length ofsmall-diameter spacer magnet 520 may generate a stand-off distancebetween cylindrical magnet 510 and pipe 101 that minimizes spurious eddycurrents in cylindrical magnet 510 and thus contributes to maximizingthe transmission of guided ultrasonic wave 104 in the preferred mode. Asa result, exclusive excitation of the preferred mode occurs withoutexciting any other unwanted modes.

FIG. 5B depicts a spacer cone flux concentrator 550 that may beimplemented with transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 to accentuate thecurvature and concentrate the magnetic flux by generated by transmitultrasonic transducers 102 so that exclusive excitation of the preferredmode occurs. Spacer cone flux concentrator 550 includes a cylindricalmagnet 560 and a spacer cone 570 coupled to cylindrical magnet 560.Cylindrical magnet 560 may generate the magnetic flux. Spacer cone 570may be a magnet that is coupled to pipe 101 and acts a magnetic fluxguide to guide the magnetic flux generated by cylindrical magnet 560without any significant loss in magnetic flux density. The distancebetween cylindrical magnet 560 and pipe 101 which is the length ofspacer cone 570 may generate a stand-off distance between cylindricalmagnet 560 and pipe 101 that minimizes spurious eddy currents incylindrical magnet 560 and thus contributes to maximizing thetransmission of guided ultrasonic wave 104 in the preferred mode. As aresult, exclusive excitation of the preferred mode occurs withoutexciting any other unwanted modes.

Although spacer magnetic flux concentrator 500 includes a cylindricalmagnetic flux guide positioned between a cylindrical magnet and pipe 101and spacer cone flux concentrator 550 includes a conical magnetic fluxguide positioned between a cylindrical magnet and pipe 101, any type ofmagnetic flux guide may be positioned between a magnet that generatesmagnetic flux and pipe 101 to guide the magnetic flux so that exclusiveexcitation of the preferred mode occurs without exciting any otherunwanted modes that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevantart(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the presentdisclosure. Further the geometries of the magnet and magnetic flux guidemay include any geometrical relationship so that exclusive excitation ofthe preferred mode occurs without exciting any other unwanted modes thatwill be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) withoutdeparting from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure. Furtherthe stand-off distance between the magnet and pipe 101 which is thedistance of the magnetic flux guide may be any stand-off distance sothat exclusive excitation of the preferred mode occurs without excitingany other unwanted modes that will be apparent to those skilled in therelevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 6A depicts example conventional guided ultrasonic wave 600generated from conventional transmit transducer configuration 400 shownin FIG. 4. Example conventional guided ultrasonic wave 600 was generatedby magnetic flux density B₀ 402 that was substantially normal to pipe101 so that magnetic flux density B₀ 402 was not bent relative to pipe101. As a result, multiple modes, S₀ 610 and A₀ 620, are depicted inexample conventional guided ultrasonic wave 600. As noted above,multiple guided wave modes that are excited and propagate through pipe101 may be significantly difficult to analyze so that any time delay inexample conventional guided ultrasonic wave 600 cannot be determined.Without determining the time delay, any non-uniform wall thickness inpipe 101 is not determined as well.

However, FIG. 6B depicts example guided ultrasonic wave 650 generatedfrom spacer magnetic flux concentrator 500 shown in FIG. 5A and/orspacer cone flux concentrator 550 shown in FIG. 5B. Example guidedultrasonic wave 650 was generated by a bend in magnetic flux generatedby small-diameter spacer magnet 520 in FIG. 5A and/or spacer cone 570 inFIG. 5B. The bend in magnetic flux results in exclusive excitation of apreferred mode A₀ 660 without exciting an unwanted mode S₀ 670. As notedabove, exclusive excitation of a preferred mode A₀ 660 that propagatesthrough pipe 101 while preventing the propagation of unwanted mode S₀670 enables preferred mode A₀ 660 to be analyzed so that any time delayin example guided ultrasonic wave 650 can be determined so that anynon-uniform wall thickness in pipe 101 may also eventually bedetermined. Although the preferred mode is shown as A₀, any exclusiveexcitation of a single mode without exciting any other mode may beimplemented that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevantart(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the presentdisclosure.

Returning to FIG. 2, control system 202 may engage in communication withtransducer system 201. Control system 202 may send an initial electronicsignal 206 to transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 to initiate transmitultrasonic transducers 102 to begin exciting guided ultrasonic waves104. Transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 may convert initial electronicsignal 206 into guided ultrasonic waves 104 which then propagate throughpipe 101 as discussed in detail above.

After guided ultrasonic waves 104 have propagated through pipe 101 andhave been received by receive ultrasonic transducers 106, receiveultrasonic transducers 106 may send guided ultrasonic wave data 207 tocontrol system 202. Guided ultrasonic wave data 207 may includethree-dimensional analog data associated with guided ultrasonic waves104 that have propagated through pipe 101 and have been received byultrasonic transducers. Control system 202 may digitize the guidedultrasonic wave data 207 from three-dimensional analog data intodigitized guided ultrasonic wave data 208. Control system 202 may thenprovide digitized guided ultrasonic wave data 208 to be analyzed bypre-processing system 203. Digitizing the analog data provided by guidedultrasonic wave data 207 into digitized guided ultrasonic wave data 208presents the data to pre-processing system 203 in a digitized formatthat is compatible with pre-processing system 203.

As noted above, the thickness data representing the wall thickness ofpipe 101 may be digitized into pixels and displayed to an operatorterminal as a wall thickness map with a resolution so that the operatormay visually identify the portions of pipe 101 that have non-uniformwall thickness. Pre-processing system 203 may process digitized guidedultrasonic wave data 208 so that the wall thickness map eventuallygenerated is of high resolution so that the operator may easily examinethe wall thickness map while being an accurate representation of thewall thickness. Pre-processing system 203 may also remove any dataartifacts from digitized guided ultrasonic wave data 208 so that thewall thickness display is accurate.

Digitized guided ultrasonic wave data 208 may be three-dimensional dataassociated with guided ultrasonic waves 104. Pre-processing system 203may convert the three-dimensional data associated with digitized guidedultrasonic wave data 208 into two-dimensional processed data 209 thatmay be processed by inversion system 204 with any artifacts included indigitized guided ultrasonic wave data 208 removed from two-dimensionalprocessed data 209.

Each guided ultrasonic wave 104 may propagate through different paths inpipe 101 when propagating from each transmit ultrasonic transducer 102to each corresponding receive ultrasonic transducer 106. For example, afirst guided ultrasonic wave 104 may propagate directly from a firsttransmit ultrasonic transducer along pipe 101 to a first receiveultrasonic transducer 106. A second guided ultrasonic wave 104 may wraparound pipe 101 a single time when propagating from a second transmitultrasonic transducer 102 to a second receive ultrasonic transducer 106.A third guided ultrasonic wave 104 may wrap around pipe 101 two timeswhen propagating from a third transmit ultrasonic transducer 102 to athird receive ultrasonic transducer 106 and so on. Pre-processing system203 may model the wrapping around pipe 101 by guided ultrasonic waves104 and capture the data generated from the wrapping.

Rather than attempting to analyze the three-dimensional data generatedby the wrapping of guided ultrasonic waves 104 around pipe 101,pre-processing system 203 may convert the three-dimensional data offirst guided ultrasonic wave 104 that propagates through pipe 101directly from first transmit ultrasonic transducer 102 to first receiveultrasonic transducer 106 without wrapping around pipe 101 intotwo-dimensional data. In doing so, pre-processing system 203 capturesthe three-dimensional data generated by first guided ultrasonic wave 104as first guided ultrasonic wave 104 propagates through pipe 101 directlyfrom first transmit ultrasonic transducer 102 to first receiveultrasonic transducer without wrapping around pipe 101. Pre-processingsystem 203 may then convert the three-dimensional data totwo-dimensional data. Pre-processing system 203 may take thethree-dimensional data associated with a three-dimensional cylindricalsection of pipe 101 where first guided ultrasonic wave 104 propagateddirectly through pipe 101 without wrapping around pipe 101.Pre-processing system 203 may then convert the three-dimensional dataassociated with the three-dimensional cylindrical section of pipe 101into two-dimensional data associated with a two-dimensional rectangularsection of pipe 101. The two-dimensional rectangular section of pipe 101represents the three-dimensional cylindrical section of pipe 101converted into two-dimensions. As a result, the information included inthe three-dimensional data is transferred to the two-dimensional data.

FIG. 7A depicts a tubular thickness mapping configuration 700 where adirect guided ultrasonic wave 704 propagates directly through pipe 101from first transmit ultrasonic transducer 702 to first receiveultrasonic transducer 706 in three-dimensions without wrapping aroundpipe 101. The three-dimensional data generated by direct guidedultrasonic wave 704 may be mapped to two-dimensional data by unwrappingthe tubular thickness mapping configuration 700 shown in FIG. 7A intounwrapped thickness mapping configuration 750 shown in FIG. 7B.Unwrapped thickness mapping configuration 750 converts thethree-dimensional data generated from direct guided ultrasonic wave 704directly propagating through pipe 101 from first transmit ultrasonictransducer 702 to first receive ultrasonic transducer 706 intotwo-dimensional data. Pipe 101 and the three-dimensional data generatedfrom direct guided ultrasonic wave 704 is no longer associated with athree-dimensional cylinder but rather is converted to be associated witha two-dimensional rectangle 755.

However, as noted above, other guided ultrasonic waves 104 may wraparound pipe 101 a single and/or multiple times when propagating fromtransmit ultrasonic transducers 102 to receive ultrasonic transducers106. Converting the three-dimensional data generated from each guidedultrasonic wave 104 that wraps around pipe 101 a single and/or multipletimes into two-dimensional data may be a difficult endeavor. However,simply converting the three-dimensional data generated by direct guidedultrasonic wave 704 that propagates directly from first transmitultrasonic transducer 702 to first receive ultrasonic transducer 706 maynot provide a sufficient wall thickness map to the operator toadequately monitor the wall thickness of pipe 101 when digitized intopixels. Additional two-dimensional data generated by guided ultrasonicwaves 104 that wrap around pipe 101 a single and/or multiple times maybe necessary to generate a sufficient wall thickness map to the operatorto adequately monitor the wall thickness of pipe 101.

Pre-processing system 203 may virtually replicate the two-dimensionaldata mapped from the three-dimensional data generated from direct guidedultrasonic wave 704 that propagates directly from first transmitultrasonic transducer 702 to first receive ultrasonic transducer 706 toadequately model the guided ultrasonic waves 104 that wrap around pipe asingle and/or multiple times. Additionally, pre-processing system 203may virtually replicate the two-dimensional data mapped from thethree-dimensional data generated by guided ultrasonic waves 104 that mayhave been excited by virtual transmit ultrasonic transducers.

For example, the quantity of transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 andreceive ultrasonic transducers 106 positioned on pipe 101 is sixteen.Pre-processing system 203 may virtually replicate the two-dimensionaldata mapped from the three-dimensional data generated by guidedultrasonic waves 104 that were excited by an additional thirty-twovirtual transducers. Rather than having two-dimensional data mapped fromthe three-dimensional data generated by sixteen different guidedultrasonic waves 104, pre-processing may virtualize two-dimensional datafrom thirty-two additional virtual guided ultrasonic waves. As a result,the amount of two-dimensional data used to generate the wall thicknessdisplay for the operator may increase from forty-eight guided ultrasonicwaves 104 thus improving the resolution of the wall thickness displayfor the operator to adequately monitor the wall thickness of pipe 101.The quantity of virtual two-dimensional data generated by pre-processingsystem 203 may include any quantity of virtual guided ultrasonic wavesto provide an adequate wall thickness display to the operator that willbe apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departingfrom the spirit and scope of the present disclosure.

FIG. 8 depicts a tubular thickness mapping configuration 800 where thetwo-dimensional data mapped from the three-dimensional data generated bydirect guided ultrasonic wave 704 that propagates directly from firsttransmit ultrasonic transducer 702 to first receive ultrasonictransducer 706 in FIG. 7B may be replicated multiple times. Thetwo-dimensional data mapped from three-dimensional data generated fromdirect guided ultrasonic wave 704 that propagates directly from firsttransmit ultrasonic transducer 702 to first receive ultrasonictransducer 706 is depicted as original data 810 in FIG. 8. Thereplicated data in FIG. 8 is depicted as first replicated data 805 a andsecond replicated data 805 n where n is an integer equal to or greaterthan one. First replicated data 805 a and second replicated data 805 nmay represent two-dimensional data mapped from three-dimensional datagenerated from virtual guided ultrasonic waves that wrapped around pipe101 a single and/or multiple times. First replicated data 805 a andsecond replicated data 805 n may also represent two-dimensional datamapped from three-dimensional data generated from virtual guidedultrasonic waves that were generated from virtual transmit ultrasonictransducers. First replicated data 805 a and second replicated data 805n may improve the resolution of the wall thickness map that is displayedto the operator so that the operator may adequately monitor the wallthickness of pipe 101. Each additional replicated data incrementallyimproves the quality of the wall thickness map.

FIG. 9 depicts an example 2-D equivalent model 900 as represented as awall thickness map for pipe 101. As can be seen, the wall thickness mapimplementing original data 810 depicts a region of interest 904 that hasreduced wall thickness in pipe 101. The wall thickness map implementingfirst replicated data 805 a depicts a region of interest 905 that is thesame region of interest of pipe 101 as depicted by region of interest904. The wall thickness map implementing second replicated data 805 ndepicts a region of interest 906 that is same region of interest of pipe101 as depicted by regions of interest 904 and 905. However, as can beseen, the wall thickness maps depicting the reduced wall thickness inpipe 101 increases in resolution for each set of two-dimensional dataassociated with each increased replicated data. For example, secondreplicated data 805 n depicts region of interest 906 in higherresolution than region of interest 904 depicted with original data 810.

As noted above, pre-processing system 203 may also remove artifacts fromthe three-dimensional data generated as guided ultrasonic waves 104propagate through pipe 101. Artifacts include data points included inthe three-dimensional data that may depict non-uniform wall thicknesswhen in actuality the three-dimensional data is representative ofanother aspect of pipe 101 that is unrelated to the wall thickness ofpipe 101. For example, temperature may be an artifact in thethree-dimensional data due to a change in temperature for pipe 101delaying the propagating of guided ultrasonic waves 104 through pipe101. The time delay due to the temperature change may be attributed tonon-uniform wall thickness for pipe 101 when in actuality thetemperature change provides substantially no indication of non-uniformwall thickness for pipe 101.

The impact on the propagation of guided ultrasonic waves 104 throughpipe 101 based on a temperature change may be uniform throughout pipe101 rather than being isolated to a portion of pipe 101. The phasevelocities of guided ultrasonic waves 104 may be uniformly slowed frominitial excitation by transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and continueto propagate at the slowed phase velocity until reaching receiveultrasonic transducers 106. However, the impact on the propagation ofguided ultrasonic waves 104 through pipe 101 due to non-uniform wallthickness is isolated to a portion of pipe 101. As noted above, guidedultrasonic waves 104 propagate through pipe 101 at a uniform phasevelocity before entering a region of non-uniform wall thickness, thenslow down during propagation through the region of non-uniform wallthickness, and then speed up when departing the region of non-uniformwall thickness.

The time delay for the propagation of guided ultrasonic waves 104 due totemperature change presents a predictable pattern in thethree-dimensional data generated by the propagation of guided ultrasonicwaves 104 through pipe 101. Three-dimensional data that depicts thispredictable pattern that indicates a time delay due to temperaturechange may be identified in the three-dimensional data and removed fromthe three-dimensional data that is eventually analyzed to determine wallthickness of pipe 101. As a result, artifacts resulting from thetemperature change may be removed improving the accuracy of the wallthickness map displayed to the operator.

Returning to FIG. 2, inversion system 204 receives the two-dimensionalprocessed data 209 from pre-processing system 203 and produces a wallthickness map 210 with the two-dimensional processed data 209. As notedabove, after the time delay in the propagation of guided ultrasonicwaves 104 is determined at receive ultrasonic transducers 106, point bypoint phase velocities may be determined for each guided ultrasonic wave104 for each point along the travel path of guided ultrasonic wave 104through pipe 101. As a result, the decrease in phase velocity for eachguided ultrasonic wave 104 during propagation through region of interest105 may be determined relative to the increase in phase velocity foreach when propagating through other portions of pipe 101 with uniformwall thickness.

FIG. 10 depicts an example dispersion characteristic relationship 1000of Lamb waves. Example dispersion characteristic relationship 1000exhibits the point by point phase velocity for guided ultrasonic wave104 as a function of the product of frequency, f, with wall thickness,t, for all the Lamb modes that can propagate in pipe 101. With thefrequency, f, for each guided ultrasonic wave 104 fixed and the point bypoint phase velocity for each guided ultrasonic wave 104 determined,inversion system 204 may determine the point by point wall thickness ofpipe 101 based on example dispersion characteristic relationship 1000.

Inversion system 204 determines the point by point wall thickness ofpipe 101 in a two-dimensional data format that is not comprehensible tothe operator so that the operator may adequately monitor the wallthickness of pipe 101. As a result, inversion system 204 thendiscretizes the point by point wall thickness of pipe 101 so each pointby point wall thickness is converted to a corresponding pixel. Inversionsystem 204 may assign a value to each pixel based on the wall thicknessfor each corresponding wall thickness point on pipe 101. Each valueassigned to each pixel may have a color associated to it thatcorresponds to the wall thickness of the corresponding wall thicknesspoint for each pixel. For example, the coloration of pixels may increasein shading as the wall thickness decreases so that pixels with darkcolorations depict wall thickness loss.

After inversion system 204 has assigned a value to each pixel thatcorresponds to each wall thickness point for pipe 101, inversion system204 may generate a wall thickness map. An example wall thickness map1100 is depicted in FIG. 11. Example wall thickness map 1100 depicts a3-D rendering 1102 which models region of interest 105 with anon-uniform wall thickness for pipe 101 in three-dimensions. Examplewall thickness map 1100 also depicts a 2-D rendering 1101 which modelsregion of interest 105 with a non-uniform wall thickness for pipe 101 intwo-dimensions.

Gray levels 1103 may be associated with the wall thickness for pipe 101.As the wall thickness for pipe 101 decreases, the shading applied toportions of pipe 101 associated with decreased wall thickness may becomedarker. As the wall thickness for pipe 101 increases, the shadingapplied to portions of pipe 101 associated with increased wall thicknessbecomes lighter. As can be seen, region of interest 105 is locatedbetween transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and receive ultrasonictransducers 106 as positioned on pipe 101.

Referring back to FIG. 2, inversion system may provide wall thicknessmap 210 to operator terminal 205. Operator terminal 205 may then displaywall thickness map 210 to the operator. The operator may easily monitorthe wall thickness of pipe 101 to determine if portions of pipe 101decreases in wall thickness, such as region of interest 105 depicted inexample wall thickness map 1100. The operator may be able to identifythe location in pipe 101 that has the decreased wall thickness and as aresult may be able to efficiently take pre-emptive measures to addressthe decreased wall thickness before damage to pipe 101 and/or to theenvironment surrounding pipe 101 occurs.

Transducer system 201, control system 202, pre-processing system 203,inversion system 204, and/or operator terminal 205 as described abovemay be used by thickness mapping system 200. Examples of functionalityperformed by each system are referenced in the above discussion.However, the above references are examples and are not limiting. Thefunctionality of each system may be performed individually by eachsystem and/or be shared among any combination of systems. As referred toherein, a system may be any type of processing (or computing) devicehaving one or more processors. For example, a system can be anindividual processor, workstation, mobile device, computer, cluster ofcomputers, set-top box, game console or other device having at least oneprocessor. In an embodiment, multiple systems may be implemented on thesame processing device. Such a processing device may include software,firmware, hardware, or a combination thereof. Software may include oneor more applications and an operating system. Hardware can include, butmay not be limited to, a processor, memory, and/or graphical userdisplay.

Detailed Discussion of Thickness Mapping System

The following provides a detailed discussion of thickness mapping system200 which goes into further detail of how transducer system 201, controlsystem 202, pre-processing system 203, inversion system 204, and/oroperator terminal 205 function.

Referring back to FIG. 1, transmit aperture 103 includes one or morecurves belonging to the surface of complex structure 101 and contains Ntransmit ultrasonic transducers 102, where N is an integer greater to orequal to one. Each ultrasonic transducer 102 launches guided ultrasonicwave 104 that travels along complex structure 101 within its wall,interacts with region of interest 105 where a reduction in wallthickness may occur, and may then be detected by plurality of receiveultrasonic transducers 106 of receive aperture 107.

Receive aperture 107 may include M receive ultrasonic transducers 106,where M is an integer greater to or equal to one arranged along one ormore curves of the surface of complex structure 101. Transmit ultrasonictransducers 102 of transmit aperture 103 operate sequentially with eachtransmit ultrasonic transducer 102 launching a wave only after the waveexcited by the previous transducer has decayed. On the other hand,receive ultrasonic transducers 106 of receive aperture 107 may receivein parallel, sequentially or with a combination of both. Due to theprinciple of reciprocity the function of transmit aperture 103 andreceive aperture 107 may be interchanged, thus receive aperture 107 canbe used as transmit aperture 103 and vice versa. Regardless of how thesignals are received a total of N×M signals are stored.

Guided ultrasonic waves 104 may result from the interaction of bulklongitudinal and shear waves with the boundaries of complex structure101. The boundaries may force the ultrasonic signal to propagate over along distance thus allowing the wave to insonify a large part of complexstructure 101 from a single transmitter position. In an embodiment,guided ultrasonic waves 104 may include Lamb waves. Lamb waves which area class of guided ultrasonic waves propagate along a flat plate. Thevelocity at which the phase of a Lamb wave signal propagates depends onthe type of Lamb mode, frequency of the signal, elastic properties ofthe plate and its thickness. The dependence of the phase velocity onsome of these parameters is shown in FIG. 10. FIG. 10 depicts thedispersion characteristic relationship 1000 of Lamb waves. Dispersioncharacteristic relationship 1000 exhibits the phase velocity as afunction of the product of frequency, f, with plate thickness, t, forall the Lamb modes that can propagate in a steel plate in the 0 to 10MHz-mm f-t range. The curves can be obtained for any material by solvingthe Rayleigh-Lamb dispersion equation. The modes are grouped in twofamilies: the asymmetric modes labeled A₀, A₁, A₂, and A₃, and thesymmetric modes labeled S₀, S₁, S₂, and S₃.

A₀ is the fundamental flexural mode which exhibits a phase velocity thatincreases with the frequency-thickness (f-t) product monotonically.Since the center frequency of the guided wave signal is constant, the A₀mode slows down as it travels across an area of reduced thickness (t issmaller) with the largest speed reduction occurring where the thicknessloss is greatest. Conversely, the velocity of the S₀ mode decreases withthe f-t product monotonically meaning that the guided mode acceleratesas it travels through a region of reduced thickness. Similarconsiderations apply to the other modes.

In an embodiment, the interaction of guided ultrasonic waves with anarea of reduced wall thickness in complex structure 101 such as thatshown in FIG. 1 may be described using a two-dimensional (2-D) acousticmodel hereafter referred to as the 2-D equivalent model. In the 2-Dequivalent model, guided ultrasonic signals propagate along a planarsurface, without thickness. The method to obtain the 2-D equivalentmodel is illustrated in the block diagram shown in FIG. 12.

FIG. 12 is a flowchart showing an example method 1200 for generating the2-D equivalent model. As shown in FIG. 12, method 1200 begins at stage1210 where the volume of the solid structure is collapsed onto athree-dimensional (3-D) surface by removing the thickness dimension fromthe solid structure. For example, a plate may be transformed into aplane. In another example, a straight section of a pipe may betransformed into a circular cylinder. In a further example, a pipe bendbecomes a section of a torus. In step 1220, a mapping may transform the3-D surface into a 2-D geometrical model.

At stage 1230, 2-D thickness map may be generated. The mapping may bebased on a suitable parameterization of the 3-D surface as illustratedin FIG. 12. FIG. 13 depicts a mapping configuration 1300 thatillustrates a 3-D surface mapped to a 2-D thickness map. FIG. 13includes a 3-D surface 1301 that is displayed in reference to a set ofCartesian coordinates 1302. For example, the 3-D surface 1301 isdisplayed in reference to the Cartesian coordinates of {O, x, y, z}.Position of a point P 1303 located on the 3-D surface 1301 may beuniquely determined by a vector r 1304 generated from the coordinates{O, x, y, z}. Point P 1303 corresponds to mapped point P′ 1305 that inthe 2-D domain 1306 may be uniquely defined by coordinates u and v.According to these definitions, a parametric representation of 3-Dsurface 1301 may be given by the vectorial equation:r=r(u,v),  (1)with u and v belonging to a subset 1307 of the 2-D domain. Thisrepresentation may be used to map a 2-D curve 1308 in the 2-D domain toone and only one 3-D curve 1309 on the 3-D surface 1301. In oneembodiment the parametric expression of 2-D curve 1308 in the 2-D domainmay be given by:v=g(u),  (2)where g(•) is a prescribed function and u varies within a finiteinterval of r. The corresponding 3-D curve 1309 on the 3-D surface 1301is given by:r=r[u,g(u)].  (3)In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the parameterization in EQ.(1) may satisfy the orthogonality condition:∂∂r/∂u·∂r/∂v=0.  (4)This condition together with the choice of a suitable velocity field forthe 2-D space ensures traveltime preservation. In particular, thetraveltime of a signal along any 2-D curve 1308 in the 2-D space is thesame as the traveltime of the guided wave signal propagating along thecorresponding 3-D curve 1309 on the 3-D surface 1301. In an exemplaryembodiment the mapping of point P 1303 of a circular cylinder is definedas:x=r sin ur,  (5)y=r cos ur,  (6)z=v,  (7)where r is the radius of the cylinder and u

[0 2πr] and v

[0 H], with H being the length of the section of cylinder as shown ascylinder configuration 1400 in FIG. 14.

In another exemplary embodiment, the mapping of a section of torus ofangle Γ, radius of curvature R and tube radius r shown as mappingconfiguration 1500 in FIG. 15 is:x=r sin u/r,  (8)y=(R+r cos u/r)cos(v/(R+r),  (9)z=(R+r cos u/r)sin(v/(R+r),  (10)withu=

[0 2πr],  (11)v=

[0(R+r)Γ].  (12)

At stage 1240, the 2-D thickness map generated in stage 1230 may be usedto generate a velocity map with a dispersion equation and the 2-Dthickness map generated in stage 1230. The propagation of guidedultrasonic waves and their interaction with regions of reduced wallthickness may be approximated according to the theory of 2-D acousticscattering. Point P′ 1305 included in subset 1307 of the 2-D domain asshown in FIG. 13 may be associated with a value of ultrasonic velocitywith equation (1).

In one embodiment, the value of ultrasonic velocity may be determinedfrom the thickness of the structure at the corresponding point P 1303and the frequency of the selected guided wave using a dispersion curve.Specifically, letting c_(M) be the phase velocity of mode M where M canrefer to one of the modes of the symmetric or antisymmetric family ofthe Rayleigh-Lamb characteristic equation. The Rayleigh-Lambcharacteristic equation may be used to calculate c_(M) for a range off×t values where the functionc _(M) =c _(M)(ft),  (13)is known. Letting t(r) be the thickness of the structure at point P 1303may be identified by vector r 1304 then the ultrasonic velocity at pointP′ 1305 that leads to travel time preservation may be given by theexpression for an inhomogenous and elliptically anisotropic velocityfieldc _(M)(u,v,θ)=c _(u) [r(u,v)]c _(v) [r(u,v)]/{c _(u) ² [r(u,v)] sin² θ+c_(v) ² [r(u,v)] cos² θ}^(1/2)c _(u) [r(u,v)]=c _(M) {ft[r(u,v)]}⁻¹ |∂r/∂u| and c _(v) [r(u,v)]=c _(M){ft[r(u,v)]}⁻¹ |∂r/∂v|  (14a)where θ may be the angle representing the propagation direction relativeto the u-axis.

Wave propagation in such a medium may be described by the anisotropicwave equationφ(u,v,f)+c _(u) ²(u,v)/(2πf)²∂²φ(u,v,f)/∂u ² +c _(v)²(u,v)/(2pf)²∂²φ(u,v,f)/∂v ²=0  (14b)where φ(u, v, f) may be a scalar potential function. In the shortwavelength limit EQ. (14b) may be approximated by the anisotropiceikonal equationc _(u) ²(u,v)∂² t(u,v)/∂u ² +c _(v) ²(u,v)∂² t(u,v)/∂v ²=1  (14c)where the function τ(u, v) is the travel time of the guided wave topoint (u, v).The use of the Rayleigh-Lamb characteristic equation to calculate thefunction c_(M)(•) may be sufficiently accurate when the thickness of thestructure is small compared to the local radius of curvature.

At stage 1250, the velocity map generated in stage 1240 may then be usedto determine the object function through the use of suitabledifferential equations. A scattering model may be used to describe theinteraction of the guided wave with the region of reduced wall thicknessbased on a suitable treatment of the anisotropic wave equation. For astraight pipe section the parametric representation in EQS. (5)-(7)leads to an isotropic field [|∂r/∂u|=|∂/∂v|=1] with c_(M)(u, v,q)=c_(M){ft[r(u, v)]}. For illustration purposes the followingdescriptions will be limited to the straight pipe case, thegeneralization to curved pipe sections may require mathematicaltreatments that are within the knowledge of one skilled in the art.

In one embodiment, the guided wave is represented by a scalar potentialfield φ(u, v, f) that in the frequency domain satisfies theinhomogeneous Helmholtz equation:Δ²φ(u,v,f)+k ²φ(u,v,f)=−4πO(u,v,f)φ(u,v,f),  (15)where Δ²φ(u, v, f) denotes the Laplacian of the field function φ(u, v,f) and k=2πf/c⁰ _(M)(f) is the background wave number obtained from thephase velocity in the undamaged structure c⁰ _(M)(f). OH(u, v, f) is theobject function defined as:O _(H)(u,v,f)=k ²/4π[(c ⁰ _(M)(f)/c _(M)(u,v,f))²−1].  (16)The object function vanishes outside the region of reduced wallthickness as c_(M)(u, v, f)=c⁰ _(M)(f). Equations (15) and (16) providea mathematical description of how a guided ultrasonic wave is scatteredby a region of reduced wall thickness.

In another embodiment, the propagation of the guided wave may bedescribed by an asymptotic approximation of the Helmholtz equation knownas the eikonal equation:(∂τ/∂u)²+(∂τ/∂v)² =O _(e)(u,v),  (17)where the function τ(u, v) is the travel time of the guided wave topoint (u, v) and the object function O_(e)(u, v) is now defined as:O _(e)(u,v)=1/c _(M)(u,v)²,  (18)where c_(M)(u, v) refers to the phase velocity of the signal at thecenter frequency. The eikonal equation leads to ray theory which canaccount for refraction effects but neglects diffraction. In anadditional embodiment, the eikonal model may be completed byapproximations of Helmholtz equation under the Born or Rytov linearizedmodels.

At stage 1260, the 2-D geometrical model and the object function mayconstitute the kernel of the 2-D equivalent model. Referring back toFIG. 7A, FIG. 7A depicts a tubular thickness mapping configuration 700.In the presence of closed surfaces or tubular structures such as a pipeas shown with pipe 101 in FIG. 7A, the 2-D kernel may be extended toinclude waves that wrap around pipe 101 before reaching receiveultrasonic transducers 106. As a result, the first step may be torepresent transmit aperture 103 and receive aperture 107 in the 2-Dgeometrical model. The position of a transducer on the surface of pipe101 may be mapped onto a point in the 2-D geometrical model using themapping in EQ. (1) satisfying the orthogonality condition in EQ. (4).Therefore, a generic transducer of the transmit array, T_(i),corresponds to point T_(i) ¹ in the 2-D geometrical model and a generictransducer of the receive array, R_(j), corresponds to point R_(j) ¹ asshown in FIG. 7A.

In an embodiment, transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and receiveultrasonic transducers 106 may be closed curves encircling pipe 101. Thesection of pipe 101 enclosed within the two arrays may then berepresented in the 2-D geometrical model by the domain enclosed byboundaries 760, 765, 775, and 785 as shown in FIG. 7B. Boundary 760corresponds to plurality of transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 oftransmit aperture 103 and boundary 765 corresponds to receive ultrasonictransducer 106 of receive aperture 107. Boundary 775 corresponds to anycurve of 3-D surface joining transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 T₁ andreceive ultrasonic transducer 106 R₁. Boundary 785 may be the rigidtranslation of boundary 775 by an amount L corresponding to the lengthof a full turn around the structure in the direction of the u parameter.Boundary 785 also maps onto the curve on 3-D surface joining transmitultrasonic transducer 102 T₁ and receive ultrasonic transducer 106 R₁.

The propagation of guided ultrasonic wave 104 from transmit ultrasonictransducer 102 T₁ to receive ultrasonic transducer 106 R_(j) may becalculated by using the 2-D geometrical model considering thepropagation from transmit ultrasonic transducer 102 T_(i) ¹ to receiveultrasonic transducer 106 R_(j) ¹. In the absence of wall thicknessloss, the wave field at a point P′ resulting from a point source attransmit ultrasonic transducer 102 T_(i) ¹ is given byφ(T _(i) ¹ ,P′,f)=A(f)G(P′,T _(i) ¹ ,f),  (19)where A(f) is a complex constant describing the phase and amplitude oftransmit ultrasonic transducer 102 and G(P′,T_(i) ¹,f) is the 2-DGreen's function for a uniform phase velocity field

$\begin{matrix}{\left. {{G\left( {P^{\prime},T_{i}^{1},f} \right)} = {{- \frac{i}{4}}{H_{0}\left( {{\frac{2\;\pi\; f}{c_{M}^{0}(f)}P^{\prime}} - T_{i}^{1}} \right.}}} \right),} & (20)\end{matrix}$where H₀ is the zero order Hankel function of the first kind and|P′−T_(i) ¹| is the distance between P′ and T_(i) ¹. The arrival time ofa continuous wave signal of frequency, f, traveling from first transmitultrasonic transducer 702 at location T_(i) on pipe 101 to first receiveultrasonic transducer 706 at location R_(j) on pipe 101 is then

$\begin{matrix}{{{\tau\left( {R_{j},T_{i},f} \right)} = {\frac{{R_{j}^{1} - T_{i}^{1}}}{c_{M}^{0}(f)} + \tau_{A}}},} & (21)\end{matrix}$where τ_(A) is a constant defining the time at which the signal islaunched by first transmit ultrasonic transducer 702 at T_(i), c_(M)⁰(f) is the phase velocity in pipe 101 of uniform thickness and |R_(j)¹−T_(i) ¹| is the distance between points R_(j) ¹ and T_(i) ¹ in the 2-Dgeometrical model. The use of the distance |R_(j) ¹−T_(i) ¹| may bejustified by Fermat's principle and orthogonality condition in EQ. (4).For a straight pipe section EQS (5)-(7) yield an arc-lengthparameterization therefore the length of straight path 795, in the 2-Dgeometrical model, is the same as the length of the corresponding pathalong 3-D surface. Moreover, in the 2-D domain, straight path 795 is theshortest path that can join receive ultrasonic transducer 706 R_(j) ¹and first transmit ultrasonic transducers 702 T_(i) ¹. In the absence ofdamage this path results in the shortest travel time thus satisfyingFermat's principle. For a curved pipe section, the length |R_(j) ¹−T_(i)¹| is replaced by the length of the curved acoustic ray joining pointsR_(j) ¹ and T_(i) ¹ and the travel time in EQ. (21) obtained by applyingray tracing techniques to the model provided by EQ. (14).

At domain replication stage 1270, additional paths may be described inthe 2-D geometrical model by extending the domain in the 2-D geometricalmodel by adding additional replicas of the 2-D equivalent kernel. Thepath from transmit ultrasonic transducer 702 T_(i) ¹ to receiveultrasonic transducer 706 R_(j) ¹ may correspond to a curve on 3-Dsurface that performs one or more full turns around the tubular section.Moreover, for each path that wraps around pipe 101 multiple times in onedirection there exists another path in the opposite direction. In orderto describe these additional paths, the domain in the 2-D geometricalmode may be extended by adding replicas of the 2-D equivalent domainkernel as shown in FIG. 8. FIG. 8 depicts a tubular thickness mappingconfiguration 800. Adding n replicas may be sufficient to describe wavesthat perform n full turns around tubular pipe 101. Each replica containsa set of N virtual transmit ultrasonic transducers and M virtual receiveultrasonic transducers. The coordinates of plurality of transmitultrasonic transducers and plurality of receive ultrasonic transducersfor the n-th replica areT _(i) ^(n|1) =T _(i) ¹ |nLû,  (22)R _(j) ^(n+1) =R _(j) ¹ +nLû,  (23)where L is the length of a full turn along the curve of 3-D surface thatcorresponds to the line v=0 in the 2-D model and is the unit vectorparallel to the u-axis in the 2-D geometrical model. Similarly theobject function, may be replicated using the object function within thekernel of the 2-D equivalent model as the template, i.e.O(P ^(u))=O(P ^(n) −nLû),  (24)

where P^(n) is the vector defining the position of a point inside then-th replica. The arrival time of a signal traveling from first transmitultrasonic transducer 702 at location T_(i) on pipe 101 to a receiveultrasonic transducer 706 at location R_(j) and undergoing n full turnsaround the structure is

$\begin{matrix}{{\tau^{n}\left( {R_{j},T_{i},f} \right)} = {\frac{{R_{j}^{1} + {{nL}\;\hat{u}} - T_{i}^{1}}}{c_{M}^{0}(f)} + {\tau_{A}.}}} & (25)\end{matrix}$The arrival time of the signal wrapping n times in the oppositedirection is

$\begin{matrix}{{\tau^{n}\left( {R_{j},T_{i},f} \right)} = {\frac{{R_{j}^{1}\mspace{14mu} T_{i}^{1}\mspace{11mu}{nL}\;\hat{u}}\; }{c_{M}^{0}(f)} + {\tau_{A}.}}} & (26)\end{matrix}$Expressions (25) and (26) can be combined into a single formula

$\begin{matrix}{{{\tau^{m}\left( {R_{j},T_{i},f} \right)} = {\frac{{R_{j}^{1} - T_{i}^{1} + {m\; L\;\hat{u}}}\; }{c_{M}^{0}(f)} + \tau_{A}}},{with}} & (27) \\{m = \left\{ \begin{matrix}{n,} \\{0,} \\{{- n},}\end{matrix} \right.} & (28)\end{matrix}$where positive and negative values of m are used to describe waveswrapping in opposite directions, and m=0 corresponds to the direct pathsthat do not perform a full turn. Formula (27) provides a generalexpression to describe wave paths in a straight pipe.

Due to the dispersion phenomenon the arrival time of a broadband signalcentered around frequency f is given by

$\begin{matrix}{{{\tau^{m}\left( {R_{j},T_{i},f} \right)} = {\frac{{R_{j}^{1} - T_{i}^{1} + {m\; L\;\hat{u}}}\; }{v_{M}^{0}(f)} + \tau_{A}}},} & (29)\end{matrix}$where v_(M) ⁰(f) is the group velocity defined through the frequencydependent mode wave number

$\begin{matrix}{{{k_{M}^{0}(f)} = {2\;\pi\;{f/{c_{M}^{0}(f)}}\mspace{14mu}{as}}}{{v_{M}^{0}(f)} = {{c_{M}^{0}(f)} + {{k_{M}^{0}(f)}{\frac{\mathbb{d}c_{M}^{0}}{\mathbb{d}k_{M}^{0}}.}}}}} & (30)\end{matrix}$For a curved pipe section, the arrival time in EQ. (29) is computednumerically by means of ray tracing methods applied to the anisotropicmodel given in EQ. (14).

An important prerogative of the 2-D equivalent model is that thephysical transmit and receive arrays that consist of N and M transducersrespectively may be transformed into virtual arrays consisting ofN′=N×(m_(max)+1) and M′=M×(m_(max)+1) virtual transducers when up tom_(max) full turns are considered. If the guided waves cannot wraparound pipe 10 a, the domain replication stage 1270 may be omitted andthe 2-D equivalent model kernel may be used as the 2-D equivalent model.

At stage 1280, the 2-D equivalent model is generated. The 2-D equivalentmodel defines a forward scattering model and may be used to predict theoutcome of GWT measurements through a region of reduced wall thicknessprovided that the spatial distribution of the wall thickness loss isknown. In particular, the forward scattering model may be used topredict the N×M physical transmission measurements. In an embodiment,the object function O(u,v,f) determined from EQ. (15) may be used in EQ.(16) to estimate the distribution of the guided wave phase velocity, inthe 2-D geometrical model where

$\begin{matrix}{{{\overset{\sim}{c}}_{M}\left( {u,v,f} \right)} = {\frac{c_{M}^{0}}{\sqrt{1 + \frac{{O_{H}\left( {u,v,f} \right)}{c_{M}^{0}}^{2}}{\pi\; f^{2}}}}.}} & (31)\end{matrix}$In another embodiment, the distribution of phase velocity is given by

$\begin{matrix}{{{\overset{\sim}{c}}_{M}\left( {u,v} \right)} = {\frac{1}{\sqrt{O_{e}\left( {u,v} \right)}}.}} & (32)\end{matrix}$In other embodiments, the phase velocity is obtained by inverting theappropriate object function corresponding to the assumed differentialequation.

Defining C_(M) ⁻¹ as the inverse of the function in EQ. (13) thethickness at point P′ of the 2-D equivalent model is

$\begin{matrix}{{t\left( {u,v} \right)} = {\frac{1}{f}{{C_{M}^{1}\left\lbrack {{\overset{\sim}{c}}_{M}\left( {u,v} \right)} \right\rbrack}.}}} & (33)\end{matrix}$This is also the thickness of the structure at the point P correspondingto P′ through the parametric representation in EQ. (1), the differencebetween the thickness of the undamaged structure and the value given byEQ. (33) provides the wall thickness loss.

Transducer System

The following provides a detailed discussion of transducer system 201which goes into further detail of how transducer system 201 functions.Returning to FIG. 1, the necessary quantity of transmit ultrasonictransducers 102 and receive ultrasonic transducers 106 may depend on adesired level of accuracy in the estimation of the wall thickness loss.Two governing parameters may be the aperture of transmit ultrasonictransducers 102 and the aperture of receive ultrasonic transducers 106and also the spacing between neighboring transmit ultrasonic transducers102 and receive ultrasonic transducers 106.

To satisfy Nyquist sampling criterion, the spacing should be half of thewavelength, λ, of the probing guided wave signal. Reducing the distancebetween transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and/or receive ultrasonictransducers 106 below λ/2 does not yield additional information. On theother hand, transducer spacing above λ/2 can lead to information lossand possible artifacts. Conversely, the larger the aperture of transmitultrasonic transducers 102 and receive ultrasonic transducers 106 thebetter the accuracy of the wall thickness estimation. Spacing transmitultrasonic transducers 102 and/or receive ultrasonic transducers 106 byλ/2 apart may not be practical in many situations as it may require avast number of transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and/or receiveultrasonic transducers to populate pipe 101, therefore more sparsetransmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and/or receive ultrasonictransducers 106 may be used at the cost of reduced accuracy.

The fixtures may be designed to be permanently installed for monitoringpurposes or removable. In an embodiment, the fixtures for continuousmonitoring include flexible metallic strips with a clamping mechanism atone end that allows the strip to be fastened around the pipecircumference. The strip carries metallic inserts that may be used tosecure transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and/or receive ultrasonictransducers 106 to the strip and hence to pipe 101. In anotherembodiment, each fixture includes two rigid half-rings connected by onehinge at one end and by a clamping mechanism at the other end.

In order to simplify signal interpretation, transmit ultrasonictransducers 102 and/or receive ultrasonic transducers may be designed toexcite and/or detect one single guided wave mode at a time. In anembodiment, transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 excite and detect thefundamental flexural mode A₀ while minimizing any spurious signalcorresponding to the other modes that may propagate in the samefrequency range, such as the S₀ mode. In another embodiment, the centerfrequency of the A₀ signal may be selected so that thefrequency-thickness product is such that the A₀ mode group velocity isin the constant group velocity (CGV) region centered at the point ofmaximum group velocity of the A₀ mode. For steel, thefrequency-thickness product corresponding to the CGV is f-t≈1.4 MHz-mm.At this point, the group velocity of A₀ is approximately constant andthe attenuation due to liquid loading may be minimal. In anotherembodiment, the selective excitation of the A₀ mode may be achieved bymeans of an omni-directional EMAT optimized to yield a high A₀/S₀sensitivity ratio. The omni-directional EMAT enables guided wavetomography using the A₀ mode without significant interference fromsignals due to the S₀ mode.

Returning to FIG. 4, FIG. 4 depicts conventional transmit transducerconfiguration 400. Conventional transmit transducer configuration 400may be used for spot-by-spot wall thickness measurements. In the case ofa standard transducer, a cylindrical permanent magnet or conventionalcylindrical magnet 401 may be used to produce an essentially normalmagnetic flux density B₀ 402 in pipe 101 located below the standardtransducer. A conventional spiral coil 404 driven by an alternatingcurrent I_(C) may be placed between the specimen and the magnet. Thealternating magnetic field produced by this primary coil currentgenerates a secondary eddy current in a thin surface layer of thespecimen. The moving charge carriers included in the eddy currentexperience a Lorentz force acting normal to both the magnetic flux linesand the velocity direction of the moving charge carriers. This forcegives radial momentum which is transferred to the lattice structure ofthe specimen via thermal collisions, resulting in radially polarizedshear wave radiation normal to the specimen surface. When used forreception, the same principles enable the EMAT to convert an incidentacoustic signal to an electrical signal across the coil terminals.

When transmitting, conventional transmit transducer configuration 400 asshown in FIG. 4 may generate axisymmetric tangential traction in thetransducer's radial direction on the surface of an electricallyconductive specimen. Returning to FIG. 3, FIG. 3 depicts an example wall300 of pipe 101. On wall 300, surface traction may generatecylindrically diverging guided wave modes as illustrated schematicallyin FIG. 3. The amplitude ratio A₀/S₀ may be controlled within certainlimits by changing the angle of inclination θ of the surface tractionproduced by the Lorentz force.

FIG. 16 depicts A₀/S₀ ratio 1600. FIG. 16 depicts the A₀/S₀ ratio as afunction of traction inclination angle in a steel plate for threedifferent frequency-thickness products (density □=7,900 kg/m³, Young'smodulus E=200 GPa, Poisson's ratio v=0.33). In this example, the outerdiameter of the circular area subjected to traction was assumed equal tothe plate thickness t. In the case of pure tangential traction (θ=0°)both the S₀ and A₀ modes may be generated due to the resulting in-planeextension and out-of-plane bending, respectively. When increasing theinclination angle, the A₀/S₀ ratio first increases because of strongerbending. Above an inclination angle of θ≈20°, the A₀/S₀ ratio may peakand then decrease. In this range, the A₀/S₀ ratio may decrease withplate thickness t because of the increasing flexural stiffness of theplate compared to its less affected in-plane stiffness.

Returning to FIGS. 5A and 5B, spacer magnetic flux concentrator 500 andspacer cone flux concentrator 550 may bend the Lorentz force so that thepreferred mode is excited without exciting any unwanted modes. TheLorentz force is an electromagnetic force resulting from the interactionof the magnetic field emitted by cylindrical magnet 510, with the mirrorcurrent induced by the AC current flowing in coil 530. The Lorentz forcepushes electrons that collide against the lattice of the metal of pipe101 and induces guided ultrasonic waves 104. Small-diameter spacermagnet 520 and spacer cone 570 rotate the Lorentz force. FIG. 16 depictsthe optimal angle to rotate the Lorentz force and achieve an optimalA₀/S₀ ratio 1600 where the A₀ mode amplitude is dominant relative to theS₀ mode amplitude, the optimal angle being about 30 degrees.

Control System

The following provides a detailed discussion of control system 202 whichgoes into further detail of how control system 202 functions. Controlsystem 202 may be configured to generate electric signals that drivetransmit ultrasonic transducers 102 included in transmit aperture 103 oftransducer system 201 and receives and digitizes the signals detected byreceive ultrasonic transducers 106 in receive aperture 107. For thepurposes of discussing control system 202 in greater detail below, aquantity of transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 may be substantiallyequal to a quantity of receive ultrasonic transducers 106 for discussionpurposes. However, the quantity of transmit ultrasonic transducers 102may be different than the quantity of receive ultrasonic transducers 106and/or any other quantity of transducers that will be apparent to thoseskilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit andscope of the present disclosure.

FIG. 17 depicts a first control system configuration 1700. First controlsystem configuration 1700 includes a controller 1705, a processor 1710,a receive multiplexor 1715, a transmit demultiplexor 1720, a singlechannel analog to digital (A/D) converter 1725, a digital to analog(D/A) converter 1730, a receive amplifier 1735, a receive filter 1740, atransmit driver 1745, a plurality of receive preamplifiers 1750 athrough 1750 n, and a plurality of channels 1755 a through 1755 n.

Plurality of channels 1755 a through 1755 n may be processedsequentially. Processor 1710 and D/A converter 1730 form an arbitrarywaveform generator (AWG). Based on selected inspection parameters,processor 1710 may calculate a numerical representation of the desiredexcitation waveform and D/A converter 1730 may transform this digitaldata into an analog signal. The AWG signal may then be amplified to apower level necessary for driving the transmitting EMAT to achievesufficient signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) on the receiver side. Forexample, the AWG signal is amplified to a power level between 500 W and5,000 W.

Transmit driver 1745 may also include an impedance matching network tomaximize the electric power available for transduction in thetransmitting EMAT. The transmitter demultiplexor 1720 may select theEMAT to be used as a transmitter and may pass through the signals of allother EMATs to each of their respective receive preamplifiers 1750 athrough 1750 n which may also include impedance matching networks attheir inputs to maximize the SNR. The outputs of receive preamplifiers1750 a through 1750 n may then be sent to receive multiplexor 1715 thatselects the input channel to be used for reception.

Due to the limited sensitivity of EMATs, the received signals may beweak. Parallel preamplification may be applied to the receive signalsbefore the receive signals are multiplexed without degrading the SNR.For example, parallel preamplification of 30-50 dB is applied to thereceive signals. The output of receive multiplexor 1715 may be filteredby programmable receive filter 1740 and further amplified byprogrammable receive amplifier 1735 before being digitized bysingle-channel A/D converter 1725. For example, digitization is executedat a 4 MHz sampling rate and 14-bit resolution to satisfy the stringentspecifications required for guided wave tomography.

FIG. 18 depicts a second control system configuration 1800. Secondcontrol system configuration 1800 includes a controller 1805, aprocessor 1810, a N-channel high-speed A/D converter 1815, an A/Dmultiplexor 1825, a transmit multiplexor 1830, a transmit driver 1835, aplurality of receive preamplifiers 1840 a through 1840 n, a plurality ofreceive filters 1845 a through 1845 n, a plurality of receive amplifiers1850 a through 1850 n, and a plurality of channels 1855 a through 1855n. Plurality of channels 1855 a through 1855 n may be processed inparallel. The signals from all EMATs may be passed through transmitmultiplexor 1830 to their respective receive preamplifiers 1840 athrough 1840 n followed by separate programmable receiving filters 1845a through 1845 n and programmable receive amplifiers 1850 a through 1850n. Each of the pre-processed analog signals may then be digitized by anN-channel high-speed A/D converter 1815 that may be shared by each ofthe channels 1855 a through 1855 n via A/D multiplexor 1825.

For example, the second control system configuration 1800 may digitize16-32 channels at 100-500 MHz sampling rate and 14-bit resolution sothat the effective sampling rate of each channel is 3-30 MHz. Theparallel processing of second control system configuration 1800 mayoffer faster overall data acquisition than the sequential processing offirst control system configuration 1700 at the expense of addedelectronics. However the faster overall data acquisition may be crucialfor guided wave tomography that requires that no changes occur in themonitored structure before a complete data set is acquired.Alternatively, parallel processing may also be exploited for reachinghigher SNR, and thereby higher measurement accuracy, through moreextensive averaging of subsequent firings of the same transmitting EMAT.

Pre-Processing System

The following provides a detailed discussion of pre-processing system203 which goes into further detail of how pre-processing system 203functions. Digitized guided ultrasonic wave data 208 generated bycontrol system 202 may be transferred to pre-processing system 203 togenerate two-dimensional processed data 209 for inversion system 204.The generation of digitized guided ultrasonic wave data 208 requires theinterpretation of digitized guided ultrasonic wave data 208 to extractinformation that is compatible with the 2-D equivalent model.

As discussed in detail above regarding FIGS. 7A, 7B, and 8,pre-processing system 203 may map the three-dimensional data generatedby guided ultrasonic waves 104 into two-dimensional data by unwrappingthe three-dimensional cylindrical aspects of pipe 101 into atwo-dimensional rectangle. In doing so, pre-processing system 203 maygenerate a parametric representation of the surface for thethree-dimensional cylinder of pipe 101. Based on the parametricrepresentation, pre-processing system 203 may sweep the surface for thethree-dimensional cylinder of pipe 101 and unwrap the three-dimensionalsurface to generate the two-dimensional rectangle.

However, generating the parametric representation when there is a bendin pipe 101 becomes more difficult. Pre-processing system 203 maygenerate the two-dimensional rectangle that represents thethree-dimensional cylinder of pipe 101 in an anisotropic medium whenencountering a bend in pipe 101. The anisotropic medium is where thespeed of sound differs in direction rather than being in the samedirection. Pre-processing system 203 may generate an ellipticallyanisotropic wave field to model the bend in pipe 101. As a result,pre-processing system 203 may generate an orthogonal parameterizationfor a bend in pipe 101.

FIG. 19 depicts a pre-processing configuration 1900. Pre-processingconfiguration 1900 includes array geometry 1901, a 2-D geometrical model1902, a signal gating 1903, a current measurement 1904, a baselinemeasurement 1905, temperature compensation 1906, a geometrical arrayregistration 1907, and a pre-processed data 1908. Pre-processingconfiguration 1900 may generate 2-D geometrical model 1902 from the truearray configuration in the 3-D space 1901 using the mapping in EQ. (1)with arc-length parameterization and satisfying the orthogonalitycondition in EQ. (4), thus producing the coordinates of the virtualtransmit and receive arrays consisting of N′=N×(m_(max)+1) andM′=M×(m_(max)+1) transducers, respectively. Signal gating 1903 may thenbe applied to the current measurements 1904 and the baselinemeasurements 1905.

In an embodiment, baseline measurements 1905 are the N×M signalsmeasured using transmit aperture 103 and receive aperture 107 on thesame structure, such as pipe 101 and/or on a calibration structure. Incontinuous monitoring the baseline signals may be measured immediatelyafter transmit aperture 103 and receive aperture 107 are installed onpipe 101. For applications in which transmit aperture 103 and receiveaperture 107 are not permanently mounted, baseline measurements 1905 maybe measured in a portion of pipe 101 with known thickness distributionor on separate structure with the same geometrical and materialcharacteristics hereafter referred to as the calibration structure.Current measurements 1904 are the N×M signals measured during theinspection of the structure. Temperature compensation 1906 andgeometrical array registration 1907 may be applied to baselinemeasurements 1905 to ensure that baseline measurements 1905 areconsistent with current measurements 1904. Current measurements 1904 andcompensated baseline measurements 1905 may be compared to producepre-processed data 1908.

Signal gating 1903 may be based on calculations of the time required bya guided wave signal to travel from a transmit ultrasonic transducer 102T_(i) to a receive ultrasonic transducer 106 R_(j) along a direct pathor multiple wrapping paths around pipe 101 according to the formula inEQ. (29) or calculated using ray tracing methods in the case of curvedpipe sections. The arrival time provided by EQ. (29) (or ray tracing)may be used to center the position of a window that has a temporalduration inversely proportional to the bandwidth of the signal. Thewindow may be used to extract a wave packet corresponding to a selectedwave path on a surface of the structure.

FIG. 20A depicts a windowing configuration 2000. Windowing may beperformed according to windowing configuration 2000. Signal 2090 may bemeasured with the experimental setup shown in FIG. 20 and is obtainedwith one pair of transmit and receive transducers. A dashed line 2010indicates the arrival time of the A₀ mode at 180 kHz calculated throughEQ. (29) for m=0. FIG. 20B depicts a Hann windowing configuration 2095may be centered around the dashed line to gate the signal and return asingle wave packet 2020. Windowing configuration 2000 depicts a pipewith multiple arrivals 2030 through 2080. Multiple arrivals 2030 through2080 correspond to A₀ performing multiple turns around the pipe.Multiple arrivals 2030 through 2080 may be extracted using asubstantially similar windowing procedure as used for single wave packet2020 and calculating the arrival times corresponding to different pathlengths through EQ. (29).

For example, signal configuration 2100 depicts signals received by eachof the sixteen transducers of transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 inFIG. 1. The arrival times of A₀ corresponding to m=0 fall between afirst time 2101 and a second time 2102, the arrivals for m=±1 are insecond time 2102 and interval 2103 and those for m=±2 are in theinterval 2103 and current measurements 2104.

The changes between the current measurements 2104 and baselinemeasurements 2105 may be used to reconstruct the wall thickness lossmap. The arrival time difference between current measurements 2104 andbaseline measurements 2105 may be measured for all the N×M signals andfor multiple paths around the structure. FIG. 22 depicts zero-crossingconfiguration 2200. Zero-crossing configuration 2200 includes baselinesignal 2201, current signal 2202, signals 2203, and envelopes 2204. Zerocrossings may be defined as the points in time where the wave packetintersects the time axis, such as at current signal 2205 and baselinesignal 2206. To estimate the arrival time difference, the zero-crossingpoint of baseline signal 2206 may be subtracted from the correspondingzero crossing of the current signal 2205.

In an embodiment, the zero crossings of current signal 2205 may bemapped to the zero crossings of baseline signal 2206 by consideringtheir position relative to a reference point in envelope 2204, such asthe envelope peak. When using the A₀ mode around the CGV point, theenvelope 2204 of signal 2203 does not shift even in the presence of wallthickness loss and therefore the mapping may be carried out consideringabsolute points in time. The arrival time difference may be measured byconsidering a single zero crossing per signal and/or a set of them.Regarding the set of zero crossings per signal, the average zerocrossing may be defined as the weighted average

$\begin{matrix}{{\overset{\_}{\tau} = \frac{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{l}{W_{i}\tau_{i}}}{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{l}W_{i}}},} & (34)\end{matrix}$where l is the number of zero-crossing points per signal and W_(i) arethe weights associated to each zero crossing τ_(i).

In another embodiment, the weight W_(i) may be substantially equal tothe amplitude of envelope 2204 at time τ_(i). The arrival timedifference may then be obtained by subtracting the average zero crossingof baseline signal 2206 from the average zero-crossing of the currentsignal 2205.

In another embodiment, the arrival time difference may be obtained usingthe complex phase of the signals. Letting s_(b)(t) and s_(c)(t) be thebaseline signal 2206 and the current signal 2205 after windowing andgenerating S_(b)(ω) and S_(c)(ω) from their Fourier transformsrespectively, the difference between the arrival time of the currentsignal, τ_(c), and that of the baseline signal, τ_(b), is

$\begin{matrix}{{{\tau_{c} - \tau_{b}} = \frac{{\angle\;{S_{c}(\omega)}} - {\angle\;{S_{b}(\omega)}}}{\omega~}},} & (35)\end{matrix}$where ∠S_(c)(ω) and ∠S_(b)(ω) are the unwrapped phases of S_(b)(ω) andS_(c)(ω), and ω is the angular frequency, ω=2πf.

In another embodiment, the arrival time difference may be calculatedusing the true phase angle, Φ, determined from the measured signalaccording to the method described in G. Instanes, A. Pedersen, M. Toppe,and P. B. Nagy, “Constant group velocity ultrasonic guided waveinspection for corrosion and erosion monitoring in pipes,” in Review ofProgress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, 2009, vol. 1096, pp.1386-1393 which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. The truephase angle is related to the arrival time of the group, τ^(g), and thatof the phase, τ^(p), of the signal according toΦ=ω(τ^(g)−τ^(p)),  (36)which may be used to express the difference between the arrival time ofthe phase of the current signal τ_(c) ^(p) and the baseline signalsτ_(b) ^(p) as

$\begin{matrix}{{\tau_{c}^{p} - \tau_{b}^{p}} = {\tau_{c}^{g} - \tau_{b}^{g} - {\frac{\Phi_{c} - \Phi_{b}}{\omega}.}}} & (37)\end{matrix}$For the A₀ mode the difference in arrival times of the group, τ_(c)^(g)−τ_(b) ^(g), may be negligible compared to the difference in arrivaltimes of the phase, τ_(c) ^(p)−τ_(b) ^(p), and therefore the latter maybe determined from the difference of the measured true phase,

${\Phi_{c} - \Phi_{b}},{{{{as}\mspace{14mu}\tau_{c}^{p}} - \tau_{b}^{p}} \approx {\frac{\Phi_{c} - \Phi_{b}}{\omega}.}}$

In another embodiment, the arrival time difference may be calculatedusing a cross-correlation method. This may be achieved by computing thecross-correlation function, R(Δ)R(Δ)=∫s _(c)(t)s _(b)(t+Δ)dt,  (39)and choosing as the arrival time difference, the value of Δ for whichR(Δ) has an absolute maximum.

Each of embodiments for the estimation of the arrival time difference,target the phase of the guided wave signal and therefore are dependenton the phase velocity of the signal rather than its group velocity. FIG.23 depicts an arrival time configuration 2300. Arrival timeconfiguration 2300 refers to first control system configuration 1700 inFIG. 17 where an irregular wall thickness loss distribution with maximumdepth equal to 10% of the wall thickness was introduced. The data isformatted according to a matrix whose j-i entry is the arrival timedifference obtained when transmitting with an i-th transmit ultrasonictransducer 102 and receiving with a j-th receive ultrasonic transducer106. Transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and receive ultrasonictransducers 106 may be extended arrays obtained using m_(max) replicasas shown in FIG. 8.

Arrival time configuration 2300 was generated with sixteen transmitultrasonic transducers 102 and sixteen receive ultrasonic transducers106. The paths around pipe 101 are helixes and the arrival timedifference matrix in FIG. 23 is formed using paths that make up to twofull turns around pipe 101, i.e. mε{−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}. As a result,transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and receive ultrasonic transducers106 each contain forty-eight ultrasonic transducers leading to a 48×48matrix of arrival time differences.

In addition to the arrival time differences, pre-processingconfiguration 1900 outputs the spectra of the windowed signals. At eachfrequency the complex value of the spectrum corresponding to the signaltraveling from the i-th transmit ultrasonic transducer 102 to the j-threceive ultrasonic transducer 106 is stored in the j-i th entry of acomplex matrix referred to as the multistatic matrix. Two multistaticmatrices are formed considering the current and baseline signalsseparately, leading to matrices K^(c) and K^(b), respectively. In oneembodiment, pre-processing system 203 output a normalized matrix, K^(N)defined as

$\begin{matrix}{K_{ji}^{N} = {\frac{K_{ji}^{c}}{K_{ji}^{b}}.}} & (40)\end{matrix}$In another embodiment, the pre-processing system 203 outputs thedifference between the current and baseline multistatic matrices, and/orsolely the current multistatic matrix.

Temperature Compensation

The changes between current signal 2202 and baseline signal 2206represent two-dimensional processed data 209 for inversion system 204.For accurate wall thickness loss mapping, changes in signal due to thewall loss is distinguished from changes in the signal due to otherbenign factors, such as temperature variations. For example, an increasein temperature in metals causes a decrease in the ultrasonic bulklongitudinal and shear velocities at a rate of about 1 m sec⁻¹° C.⁻¹. Asa result, temperature variations alter the phase and group velocity ofLamb waves in a frequency dependent fashion. The temperature variationsalso affect the arrival time difference estimation when the temperatureof the structure varies between current signal 2205 measurements andbaseline signal 2206 measurement. Temperature compensation may berequired to eliminate this effect from the measurements.

In an embodiment, temperature compensation may correct baseline signal2206 measurements to match the temperature of current signal 2205measurements. Let be the matrix of absolute arrival times obtained frombaseline signal 2206 measurements at temperature and with the matrix ofabsolute arrival times obtained from current signal 2206 measurements attemperature. In general, may be measured in the presence of wallthickness loss. Defining Δc_(M)(f) as the phase velocity change due tothe temperature difference, the j-i entry of the baseline arrival timematrix at temperature is

$\begin{matrix}{{{\tau_{ji}^{b}\left( \Theta_{c} \right)} = {{\tau_{ji}^{b}\left( \Theta_{b} \right)} - \frac{D_{ji}{{\Delta c}_{M}(f)}}{{c_{M}^{b}(f)}\left\lbrack {{\Delta\;{c_{M}(f)}} + {c_{M}^{b}(f)}} \right\rbrack}}},} & (41)\end{matrix}$where D_(ji) is the distance between the i-th transducer of the virtualtransmit array and the j-th transducer of the virtual receive array, andc_(M) ^(b)(f) is the phase velocity at the temperature of the i baselinemeasurements—assumed to be known.

In another embodiment, Δc_(M)(f), may be calculated by minimizing theresidual between and. This may be achieved by omitting the frequencydependence and through a least squares criterion based on theminimization the cost function

$\begin{matrix}{{{E\left( {\Delta\; c_{M}} \right)} = {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N^{\prime}}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{M^{\prime}}{w_{ji}\left\lbrack {{\tau_{ji}^{c}\left( \Theta_{c} \right)} - {\tau_{ji}^{b}\left( \Theta_{b} \right)} - \frac{D_{ji}\Delta\; c_{M}}{c_{M}^{b}\left( {{\Delta\; c_{M}} + c_{M}^{b}} \right)}} \right\rbrack}^{2}}}},} & (42)\end{matrix}$where N′ and M′ are the number of transducers in the virtual transmitand receive arrays, respectively and w_(ij) are weights chosen to reduceor exclude the contribution of some measurements. The value of Δc_(M)resulting in a global minimum for the cost function E, Δc_(M) ^(†),provides the best estimate for the change in phase velocity between thecurrent and baseline temperatures, i.e.

$\begin{matrix}{{\Delta\; c_{M}^{\dagger}} = {\arg\;{\min\limits_{\Delta\; c_{M}}{{E\left( {\Delta\; c_{M}} \right)}.}}}} & (43)\end{matrix}$The temperature compensated arrival time difference matrix is then

$\begin{matrix}{{\Delta\;\tau_{ji}} = {{\tau_{ji}^{c}\left( \Theta_{c} \right)} - {\tau_{ji}^{b}\left( \Theta_{b} \right)} + {\frac{D_{ji}\Delta\; c_{M}^{\dagger}}{c_{M}^{b}\left( {{\Delta\; c_{M}^{\dagger}} + c_{M}^{b}} \right)}.}}} & (44)\end{matrix}$

In another embodiment, the temperature of the structure may be recordedduring baseline signal 2206 measurements and current signal 2205measurements. To estimate the value of Δc_(M) ^(†), the bulk shear andlongitudinal velocities are obtained at temperatures and from tabulatedvalues. The set of bulk ultrasonic velocities at temperature issubstituted into the Rayleigh-Lamb dispersion equation to obtain thephase velocity at temperature and frequency f. Similarly, the set ofbulk ultrasonic velocities at temperature is substituted in theRayleigh-Lamb dispersion equation to obtain the phase velocity attemperature and frequency f. The phase velocity variation is then givenbyΔc _(M) ^(t)(f,Θ _(b),Θ_(c))=c _(M)(f,Θ _(c))−c _(M)(f,Θ _(b)).  (45)The temperature compensated arrival time difference matrix is obtainedby substituting this value into EQ. (44).

Array Geometrical Registration

In an embodiment, transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and receiveultrasonic transducers 106 may not be permanently installed onto pipe101 and the relative position of transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 andreceive ultrasonic transducers 106 may be different from that usedduring baseline signal 2206 measurements and current signal 2205measurements. These changes cause the arrival times of current signals2205 to be different from those of baseline signals 2206. The objectiveof array geometrical registration may be to adjust the arrival times ofbaseline signal 2206 measurements and current signal 2206 measurementsto the relative configuration of receive ultrasonic transducers 106 andtransmit ultrasonic transducers 102 during current signal 2205measurements.

First the case in which no temperature variations between baselinesignal 2206 and current signal 2205 measurements may be considered. FIG.24 depicts an array geometrical registration configuration 2400. Theposition of receive array 2402 relative to the position of transmitarray 2401 may be determined by three degrees of freedom in the 2-Dequivalent model.

For example, the coordinates of one ultrasonic transducer and one angleis shown in FIG. 24. Let ξ_(b), η_(b), and ψ_(b) be the degrees offreedom describing the position of receive array 2402 relative totransmit array 2401 during baseline signal 2206 measurements and ξ_(c),η_(c), and ψ_(c) with the parameters describing the position of receivearray 2402 during current measurements 2403. The path length from i-thultrasonic transducer of virtual transmit array 2401 to j-th ultrasonictransducer of virtual receive array 2402 is a known function of thethree degrees of freedomD _(ji) =D _(ji)(ξ,η,ψ).  (46)Let τ^(b)(ξ_(b), η_(b), ψ_(b)) be the matrix of absolute arrival timesmeasured in the baseline configuration. The arrival time matrix ofbaseline signals 2206 adjusted to the current configuration,

$\begin{matrix}{\mspace{79mu}{{{\tau^{b}\left( {\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c}} \right)},{is}}{{{\tau_{ji}^{b}\left( {\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c}} \right)} = {{\tau_{ji}^{b}\left( {\xi_{b},\eta_{b},\psi_{b}} \right)} + \frac{{D_{ji}\left( {\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c}} \right)} - {D_{ji}\left( {\xi_{b},\eta_{b},\psi_{b}} \right)}}{c_{M}}}},}}} & (47)\end{matrix}$where the frequency dependence has been omitted to simplify thenotation.

In an embodiment, the parameters of the current configuration ξ_(c),η_(c), ψ_(c), are obtained by considering the residual between theadjusted baseline arrival times and the measured arrival times in thecurrent configuration, τ_(ji) ^(c)(ξ_(c), η_(c), ψ_(c)), according to aleast squares criterion. For this purpose, the cost function is definedas

$\begin{matrix}{{{H\left( {\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c}} \right)} = {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N^{\prime}}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{M^{\prime}}{w_{ji}\left\lbrack {{\tau_{ji}^{c}\left( {\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c}} \right)} - {\tau_{ji}^{b}\left( {\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c}} \right)}} \right\rbrack}^{2}}}},} & (48)\end{matrix}$where N′ and M′ are the number of transducers in virtual transmit array2401 and receive array 2402, respectively and w_(ji) are the weightsdefined earlier for the cost function in EQ. (42). The optimal values ofthe parameters that minimize the cost function ξ_(c) ^(†), η_(c) ^(†),ψ_(c) ^(†), correspond to the global minimum of H(•), according to

$\begin{matrix}{\left\lbrack {\xi_{c}^{\dagger},\eta_{c}^{\dagger},\psi_{c}^{\dagger}} \right\rbrack = {\arg\;{\min\limits_{\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c}}{{{II}\left( {\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c}} \right)}.}}}} & (49)\end{matrix}$In another embodiment, ξ_(c) ^(†), η_(c) ^(†), ψ_(c) ^(†) are measureddirectly on pipe 101. In both cases, the adjusted matrix of the baselinearrival times is the obtained by substituting the values of ξ_(c),η_(c), ψ_(c) on the right-hand side of EQ. (47) with ξ_(c) ^(†), η_(c)^(†), ψ_(c) ^(†).

In an embodiment temperature compensation and array registration may beperformed simultaneously. The adjusted matrix of baseline arrival timesfor the current configuration and temperature is

$\begin{matrix}{{\tau_{ji}^{b}\left( {\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c},\Theta_{c}} \right)} = {{\tau_{ji}^{b}\left( {\xi_{b},\eta_{b},\psi_{b},\Theta_{b}} \right)} + \frac{{D_{ji}\left( {\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c}} \right)}\mspace{14mu}{D_{ji}\left( {\xi_{b},\eta_{b},\psi_{b}} \right)}}{c_{M}^{b} + {\Delta\; c_{M}}} - {\frac{{D_{ji}\left( {\xi_{b},\eta_{b},\psi_{b}} \right)}\Delta\; c_{M}}{c_{M}^{b}\left( {c_{M}^{b} + {\Delta\; c_{M}}} \right)}.}}} & (50)\end{matrix}$In another embodiment, the parameters of the current configurationξ_(c), η_(c), ψ_(c) and the phase velocity change Δc_(M) may be obtainedby considering the residual between the adjusted baseline arrival timesand the measured arrival times in the current configuration, accordingto a least squares criterion. For this purpose, the cost function isdefined as

$\begin{matrix}{{{I\left( {\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c},{\Delta\; c_{M}}} \right)} - {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N^{\prime}}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{M^{\prime}}{w_{ji}\left\lbrack {{\tau_{ji}^{c}\left( {\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c},\Theta_{c}} \right)} - {\tau_{ji}^{b}\left( {\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c},\Theta_{c}} \right)}} \right\rbrack}^{2}}}},} & (51)\end{matrix}$where N′ and M′ are the number of transducers in virtual transmit array2401 and receive array 2402, respectively and w_(ji) are the weightsdefined earlier for the cost function in EQ. (42). The optimal values ofthe parameters that minimize the cost function ξ_(c) ^(†), η_(c) ^(†),ψ_(c) ^(†), Δc_(M) ^(†), correspond to the global minimum of I(•),according to

$\begin{matrix}{\left\lbrack {\xi_{c}^{\dagger},\eta_{c}^{\dagger},\psi_{c}^{\dagger},{\Delta\; c_{M}^{\dagger}}} \right\rbrack = {\arg\;{\min\limits_{\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c},{\Delta\; c_{M}}}{{I\left( {\xi_{c},\eta_{c},\psi_{c},{\Delta\; c_{M}}} \right)}.}}}} & (52)\end{matrix}$In another embodiment, the values of ξ_(c) ^(†), η_(c) ^(†), ψ_(c) ^(†)are measured directly on the structure and Δc_(M) may be obtained fromthe measured temperature variation through EQ. (45). The values of ξ_(c)^(†), η_(c) ^(†), ψ_(c) ^(†) and Δc_(M) ^(†), are substituted into EQ.(50) to obtain the corrected baseline.

Inversion System

The following provides a detailed discussion of inversion system 204which goes into further detail of how inversion system 204 functions.Two-dimensional processed data 209 from pre-processing system 203 may befurther processed by inversion system 204 to obtain a map of residualthickness distribution. The inversion of two-dimensional processed data209 may be based on the 2-D equivalent model and is aimed atreconstructing the distribution of phase velocity across the surface ofpipe 101 for the selected guided mode and at the selected frequency. Torepresent the velocity map and other field functions, the 2-D equivalentdomain may be discretized using a regular grid of points with the valuesof the field functions given at the nodes of the grid. The fieldfunctions may be represented in the format of an image in which eachpixel corresponds to a node of the grid.

FIG. 25 depicts a first nonlinear inversion system 2500 that invertstwo-dimensional processed data 209. First nonlinear inversion system2500 includes an initial velocity map 2501, forward solver 2502, virtualarray geometry 2503, synthetic data 2504, pre-processed data 2505, costfunction 2506, convergence criterion 2507, back projection 2508, andupdated velocity map 2509.

An initial guess for phase velocity map c_(M)(u,v) 2501 may be passed toforward solver 2502 that uses phase velocity map 2501 in conjunctionwith virtual array geometry 2503 to generate the object functionconsistent with the chosen differential equation and to simulate theresult of transmission measurements from the transducers of the virtualtransmit array to the transducers of the virtual receive array, thusproviding a set of synthetic data 2504. Synthetic data 2504 andpre-processed data 2505 from pre-processing system 203 may then be usedto evaluate cost function 2506 which is a measure of the residualbetween the two sets of data based on a least squares criterion. Thevalue of cost function 2506 may then be passed to convergence criterion2507 based on a threshold level. If the cost function is below thethreshold, the synthetic dataset may be a good approximation ofpre-processed data 2505 and therefore the assumed velocity map,c_(M)(u,v) 2501, closely reproduces the true guided wave velocitydistribution across the structure.

However, assumed velocity map 2501 is inaccurate when cost function 2506is above the threshold. In this case, synthetic data 2504 andpre-processed data 2505 are used by back-projection algorithm 2508 togenerate an updated velocity map 2509. The updated velocity map 2509 maythen be passed to forward solver 2502 to obtain a new set of syntheticdata 2504 that may be used to estimate the new value of cost function2506. If convergence criterion 2507 is not met a new updated velocitymap 2509 may be generated until convergence criterion 2507 is satisfied.Virtual array geometry 2503 refers to the geometry of the virtualtransmit and receive arrays consisting of N′ virtual transmittransducers and M′ virtual receive transducers. Similarly pre-processeddata 2505 contains information about the N′×M′ virtual signals.

In an embodiment, the first nonlinear inversion system 2500 may executea method of Bent Ray Tomography (BRT) also known as Curved RayTomography. Forward solver 2502 may model wave propagation using theapproximation of ray theory described by the two dimensional eikonalequation (17). At each iteration step, the differential equation issolved using the object function O_(e)=1/c_(M)(u,v)² where c_(M)(u,v) isupdated velocity map 2509.

In another embodiment, EQ. (17) is solved with the ray-tracing method.Equation (17) is used to calculate the arrival times from thetransducers of the virtual transmit array to the transducers of thevirtual receive array, leading to a matrix containing N′×M′ arrivaltimes. The matrix of arrival time differences is obtained by subtractingfrom this matrix the arrival times calculated for propagation in amedium with constant velocity c_(M) ⁰ and leads to a synthetic arrivaltime difference matrix, Δτ_(syn). This matrix is then compared to thearrival time difference matrix passed from pre-processing system 203,Δτ_(pp), defining a cost function as

$\begin{matrix}{A = {\sum\limits_{i - 1}^{N^{\prime}}{\sum\limits_{j - 1}^{M^{\prime}}{\left( {{\Delta\;\tau_{syn}} - {\Delta\;\tau_{pp}}} \right)^{2}.}}}} & (53)\end{matrix}$

If A is larger than the threshold level, convergence criterion 2507 isnot satisfied and matrices Δτ_(syn) and Δτ_(PP) are processed by theback-projection algorithm to produce an updated object function. In anembodiment, the updated object function may be computed through thenonlinear conjugate gradient method based on the Fletecher-Reevesformula and a back-tracking line search method as described by A.Hormati, I. Jovanovic, O. Roy, and M. Vetterli, “Robust ultrasoundtraveltime tomography using the bent ray model,” in SPIE vol. 7629,762901, 2010, and is incorporated by reference in its entirety. Auniform velocity distribution, c_(M)(u,v)=c_(M) ⁰ may be used as theinitial estimate at the beginning of the iteration.

Returning to FIG. 9, FIG. 9 depicts a 2-D equivalent model 900 whereupdated velocity map 2509 may be obtained at the end of the iterationusing the A₀ mode arrival time difference matrix shown in FIG. 9 whichis obtained considering helical modes wrapping around the pipe up to twotimes m_(max)=2. 2-D equivalent model 900 includes two replicas, firstreplicated data 805 a and second replicated data 805 n, each generatedby 16×3=48 virtual transducers. Each gray level in 2-D equivalent model900 corresponds to a value of phase velocity in m/s. The regions 904through 906 represent regions of reduced wall thickness in the actualpipe.

Back-projection 2508 included in first nonlinear inversion system 2500illustrated in FIG. 25 does not use prior knowledge that includes thatvelocity map 2501 should be the same inside each replica and the 2-Dequivalent model kernel. Velocity maps 2801 in the kernel and inoriginal data 810 are degraded compared to the image in secondreplicated data 805 n. The latter may be more accurate because a greaternumber of rays intersects this region from virtual transmit array tovirtual receive array.

In another embodiment prior knowledge may be incorporated into firstnonlinear inversion system 2500 as discussed in further detail below inthe context of regularization techniques. In another embodiment, thecentral replica at the end of the iteration may be used to represent thephase velocity distribution on the pipe. FIG. 26 depicts an inversefunction configuration 2600. Inverse function configuration 2600 depictsthat the thickness distribution is obtained through EQ. (33) usingtabulated values of the inverse function C_(M) ⁻¹ for the A₀ mode shownin FIG. 26.

For example, the pipe wall thickness is 7.4 mm and the center frequencyof the guided wave signal is 180 kHz, corresponding to a backgroundphase velocity c_(M) ⁰=2547 m/s as indicated by point 2601. Returning toFIG. 11 depicts a wall thickness map 1100. Wall thickness map 1100depicts a 2-D map 1101 and a 3-D rendering 1102 obtained using themapping in EQ. 5. The gray levels 1103 provide the wall thickness lossas a percentage of the pipe nominal wall thickness for each spatialpoint included between transmit ultrasonic transducers 102 and receiveultrasonic transducers 106.

In another embodiment, first nonlinear inversion system 2500 implementsthe method of Full Wave Inversion (FWI). Forward solver 2502 in FIG. 25may model wave propagation using the Helmholtz equation (15) or itsone-way approximation which are solved using numerical techniques suchas the Finite Difference Method (FDM) or the Finite Element Method(FEM). The forward solver simulates the multistatic matrix at a selectedfrequency, K_(syn), which is then compared to the measured multistaticmatrix at the same frequency from the pre-processing system K_(pp)through the definition of the cost function

$\begin{matrix}{B = {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N^{\prime}}{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{M^{\prime}}{{{K_{syn} - K_{pp}}}^{2}.}}}} & (54)\end{matrix}$

K_(sys) and K_(pp) are used to produce an updated object functionthrough the back-projection algorithm when the cost function is aboveconvergence criterion 2507. In an embodiment, the back-projectionalgorithm may use the non linear conjugate gradient method where thegradient direction is calculated by back-propagating the wave field. Inanother embodiment, the iteration may be performed for a set offrequencies within the bandwidth of the signal. The first set ofiteration may be performed using the lowest frequency within thebandwidth of the signal and the velocity map from the BRT method as theinitial velocity map 2501 in FIG. 25. The velocity map obtained at theend of the first set of iteration is then used as initial velocity map2501 for the next set of iteration at the next higher frequency.

FIG. 27 depicts a second nonlinear inversion system 2700 that implementsan inversion scheme according to P. Huthwaite and F. Simonetti, “Damagedetection through sound speed reconstruction,” in Review of Progress inQuantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, 2012, vol. 1430, pp. 777-784,which is incorporated in its entirety. Initial velocity map 2701 may beused to generate the object function 2702.

In an embodiment, the initial velocity map may be obtained using the BRTmethod described above. Object function 2702 may then be passed toforward solver 2703 that uses array geometry 2703 to generate steeringfunction 2705. Steering function 2705, S(T,P), describes the wave fieldat point P due to a point source at point T in the 2-D equivalent model.Forward solver 2703 may use the eikonal equation (17) or the Helmholtzequation (15). Steering function 2705 may then be used by beam formingalgorithm 2706 that takes the multistatic matrix from pre-processed data2707 to form an image that is then processed using the DiffractionTomography filter 2708 according to the method proposed by F. Simonettiand L. Huang, “From beamforming to diffraction tomography,” J. Appl.Phys., vol. 103, pp. 103110, 2009 and P. Huthwaite and F. Simonetti,“High-resolution imaging without iteration: A fast and robust method forbreast ultrasound tomography,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am., vol. 132, pp.1249-1252, 2012, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety.

The filter returns a correction to object function 2702 which ifsufficiently large is added to object function 2702 to generate anupdated object function 2710 used to perform the next iteration cycle.The process continues until the correction to object function correction2709 becomes negligible. This is assessed through a cost function 2711which is a measure of object function correction 2709. In anotherembodiment, cost function 2711 may be obtained using the Frobenius normof the matrix containing the values of object function correction 2709at each node of the discretization grid. Convergence criterion 2712stops the iteration when cost function 2711 drops below a thresholdlevel.

The accuracy and stability of first nonlinear inversion system 2500 andsecond nonlinear inversion system 2700 described above may besubstantially improved by the use of the modes that wrap around thestructure multiple times since the number of virtual signals ism_(max)+1 times greater than the direct signals, therefore the largerm_(max) the greater the accuracy of the thickness reconstruction. Inpractice, the value of m_(max) is limited by the fact that the arrivaltimes of wave packets corresponding to large values of m tend to be veryclose to each other, especially as the distance between the transmit andreceive arrays increases. As a result, it becomes increasingly moredifficult to resolve in time the wave packets corresponding to differentpaths. We have found that in practical applications it is possible touse m_(max)=2.

The accuracy and the stability of first nonlinear inversion system 2500and second nonlinear inversion system 2700 may be implemented usingregularization techniques that make effective use of prior knowledge.The prior knowledge may be used at each iterative step when the updatedvelocity maps and object functions are generated. Further discussion ofregularization techniques are discussed in further detail below.

Phase Velocity Extrema

The phase velocity of a Lamb wave is a monotonic function of thefrequency-thickness product as shown in FIG. 10. For a Lamb mode whosephase velocity is an increasing function of the frequency-thicknessproduct, such as the A₀ mode, a wall thickness loss can only cause areduction in phase velocity. In this case the regularization conditionis c_(M)(u,v)≦c_(M) ⁰. The regularization may be performed by settingany value of the phase velocity map larger than c_(M) ⁰ equal to c_(M)⁰. Conversely, for a Lamb mode whose phase velocity is a decreasingfunction of the frequency-thickness product, such as the S₀ mode, a wallthickness loss can only lead to an increase in phase velocity. In thiscase, the regularization is performed by setting any value of the phasevelocity map below c_(M) ⁰ equal to c_(M) ⁰.

Object Function Replicas

The regularization may be performed by imposing that in each updatedvelocity map and/or object function, the replicas in the 2-D equivalentmodel contain identical maps. In an embodiment, this may be achieved byusing the central replica as the template. With reference to the exampleshown in FIG. 9, first replicated data 805 a is used as the template toreplace the velocity map for the 2-D equivalent model kernel and forfirst replicated data 805 a at each iterative step. In anotherembodiment, the template may be obtained as a weighted average of thevelocity maps within each replica giving a larger weight to the centralreplicas.

Embodiments can work with software, hardware, and/or operating systemimplementations other than those described herein. Any software,hardware, and operating system implementations suitable for performingthe functions described herein can be used. Embodiments are applicableto both a client and to a server or a combination of both.

The Brief Summary and Abstract sections may set forth one or more butnot all example embodiments and thus are not intended to limit the scopeof the present disclosure and the appended claims in any way.

Embodiments have been described above with the aid of functionalbuilding blocks illustrating the implementation of specified functionsand relationships thereof. The boundaries of these functional buildingblocks have been arbitrarily defined herein for the convenience of thedescription. Alternate boundaries can be defined so long as thespecified functions and relationships thereof are appropriatelyperformed.

The foregoing description of specific embodiments will so fully revealthe general nature of the disclosure that others can, by applyingknowledge within the skill of the art, readily modify and/or adapt forvarious applications such specific embodiments, without undueexperimentation, without departing from the general concept of thepresent disclosure. Therefore, such adaptation and modifications areintended to be within the meaning and range of equivalents of thedisclosed embodiments, based on the teaching and guidance presentedherein. It is to be understood that the phraseology or terminologyherein is for the purpose of description and not of limitation, suchthat the terminology or phraseology of the present specification is tobe interpreted by the skilled artisan in light of the teachings andguidance.

The breadth and scope of the present disclosure should not be limited byany of the above-described example embodiments, but should be definedonly in accordance with the following claims and their equivalents.

What is claimed is:
 1. A system for measuring wall thickness in a regionof interest included in a structure, comprising: a plurality oftransducers each with a magnetic flux guide configured to: excite apreferred guided wave mode from a plurality of non-preferred guided wavemodes that propagate at a non-preferred guided mode frequency that issubstantially similar to a preferred guided wave mode frequencyassociated with the preferred guided wave mode, wherein the plurality ofpreferred guided wave modes propagate longitudinally in a A₀ mode andthe plurality of non-preferred guided wave modes propagatelongitudinally in a S₀ mode, minimize each spurious signal associatedwith the non-preferred guided wave modes by adjusting an inclinationangle of a Lorentz Force field beneath each transducer with the magneticflux guide to increase an amplitude ratio between the preferred guidedwave mode and each spurious signal associated with the non-preferredguided wave modes, and generate the electrical signal that encodes thethree-dimensional representation of the wall thickness loss distributionof the region of interest based on a change in the preferred guided wavemode from excitation to detection; a pre-processing system configured toconvert the three-dimensional representation encoded by the propagatedelectrical signals to a two-dimensional model for analysis of the wallthickness loss distribution; and an inversion system configured togenerate a wall thickness loss distribution map from the two-dimensionalmodel, wherein the wall thickness loss distribution map provides thewall thickness loss distribution for the region of interest.
 2. Thesystem of claim 1, further comprising: a control system configured tosend initial electronic signals to be converted into the ultrasonicwaves and digitize the propagated electrical signals received from thetransducer system for the analysis of the wall thickness lossdistribution of the region of interest.
 3. The system of claim 1,further comprising: an operator terminal configured to provide aninterface for an operator to analyze the wall thickness lossdistribution map.
 4. The system of claim 1, wherein the pre-processingsystem is further configured to: generate a plurality of virtualtransducers that are virtual replicas of each transmission transducerand reception transducer; expand the three-dimensional representation ofthe wall thickness loss distribution to include data generated by theplurality of virtual transducers and each transducer; extractinformation from the propagated electrical signals based on thepreferred guided wave mode of the propagated electrical signals thatpropagated through the region of interest; generate virtualrepresentations of the propagated electrical signals based on theinformation associated with the preferred guided wave mode of thepropagated electrical signals and the data generated by the plurality ofvirtual transducers; and provide additional detail to thethree-dimensional representation of the wall thickness loss distributionof the region of interest based on the virtual representations.
 5. Thesystem of claim 4, wherein the pre-processing system is furtherconfigured to: determine each travel time of the preferred guided wavemode from each virtual transducer; gate each wave pulse that correspondsto each travel time of the preferred guided wave mode from each virtualtransducer; and assign the information included in each gated wave pulseto each corresponding virtual transducer.
 6. The system of claim 4,wherein the pre-processing system is further configured to generate aparametric representation of the three-dimensional representation of thewall thickness loss distribution of the region of interest to map thethree-dimensional representation to the two-dimensional model based onan orthogonality condition and an elliptically anisotropic velocitymodel that preserves travel time for the ultrasonic waves.
 7. The systemof claim 1, wherein the pre-processing system is further configured to:identify a pattern in the electrical signal that is not associated withthe wall thickness loss distribution of the region of interest; andremove the pattern from the analysis of the wall thickness lossdistribution.
 8. The system of claim 4, wherein the inversion system isfurther configured to reconstruct a distribution of phase velocityacross the two-dimensional model for the preferred wave mode at aselected frequency.
 9. The system of claim 8, wherein the inversionsystem is further configured to regularize the two-dimensional model byimposing that the virtual replicas be identical.
 10. The system of claim1, wherein the inversion system is further configured to: discretize thetwo-dimensional model to a grid of points, generate a value of a fieldfunction at each node of the grid of points, and format thetwo-dimensional model to the grid of points to generate thewall-thickness loss distribution map, wherein each pixel in thewall-thickness loss distribution map corresponds to each node of thegrid of points.
 11. A method for measuring wall thickness in a region ofinterest included in a structure, comprising: exciting a preferredguided wave mode from a plurality of non-preferred guided wave modesthat propagate at a non-preferred guided mode frequency that issubstantially similar to a preferred guided wave mode frequencyassociated with the preferred guided wave mode, wherein the plurality ofpreferred guided wave modes propagate longitudinally in a A₀ mode andthe plurality of non-preferred guided wave modes propagatelongitudinally in a S₀ mode; minimizing each spurious signal associatedwith the non-preferred guided wave modes by adjusting an inclinationangle of a Lorentz Force field beneath each transducer with the magneticflux guide to increase an amplitude ratio between the preferred guidedwave mode and each spurious signal associated with the non-preferredguided wave modes; generating the electrical signal that encodes thethree-dimensional representation of the wall-thickness loss distributionof the region of interest based on a change in the preferred guided wavemode from excitation to detection; converting the three-dimensionalrepresentation encoded by the propagated electrical signals to atwo-dimensional model for analysis of the wall thickness lossdistribution; and generating a wall thickness loss distribution map fromthe two-dimensional model, wherein the wall thickness loss distributionmap provides wall thickness loss for the region of interest.
 12. Themethod of claim 11, further comprising: sending initial electronicsignals to be converted into the ultrasonic waves; receiving thepropagated electrical signals; and digitizing the received propagatedelectrical signals for the analysis of the wall thickness of lossdistribution in the region of interest.
 13. The method of claim 11,further comprising: providing a user interface for an operator toanalyze the wall thickness loss distribution map.
 14. The method ofclaim 11, wherein the converting of the three-dimensional representationcomprises: generating a plurality of virtual transducers that arevirtual replicas of each transducer positioned on the structure;expanding the three-dimensional representation of the wall thicknessloss distribution to include data generated by the plurality of virtualtransducers and each transducer; extracting information from theelectrical signal based on the preferred guided wave mode of thepropagated electrical signals that propagated through the region ofinterest; generating virtual representations of the propagatedelectrical signals based on information associated with the preferredguided wave mode of the propagated electrical signals and the datagenerated by the plurality of virtual transducers; and providingadditional detail to the three-dimensional representation of the wallthickness loss distribution of the region of interest based on thevirtual representations.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein theconverting of the three-dimensional representation further comprises:determining each travel time of the preferred guided wave mode from eachvirtual transducer; gating each wave pulse that corresponds to eachtravel time of the preferred guided wave mode from each virtualtransducer; and assigning the information included in each gated wavepulse to each corresponding virtual transducer.
 16. The method of 15,wherein the converting of the three-dimensional representation furthercomprises: generating a parametric representation of thethree-dimensional representation of the wall thickness loss distributionof the region of interest; and mapping the three-dimensionalrepresentation to the two-dimensional model based on an orthoganalitycondition and an elliptically anisotropic velocity model that preservestravel time for the ultrasonic waves.
 17. The method of claim 15,converting of the three-dimensional representation further comprises:identifying a pattern in the propagated electrical signals that is notassociated with the wall thickness loss of the region of interest; andremoving the pattern from the analysis of the wall thickness loss. 18.The method of claim 14, wherein the generating of the wall thicknessloss distribution map comprises: reconstructing a distribution of phasevelocity across the two-dimensional model for the preferred wave mode ata selected frequency.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the generatingof the wall thickness loss distribution map comprises: regularizing thetwo-dimensional model by imposing that the virtual replicas beidentical.
 20. The method of claim 14, wherein the generating of thewall thickness loss distribution map further comprises: discretizing thetwo-dimensional model to a grid of points; inverting the data toestimate phase velocity at each node of the grid of points; andgenerating the wall-thickness loss distribution map, wherein each pixelin the wall-thickness loss distribution map corresponds to each node ofthe grid of points.